Journal of Language and Literature Studies

Unveiling Melodies: Navigating Issues in African Oral Literature through Nkem Okoh's Preface to Oral Literature

Okwudiri Anasiudu — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The oral literature in Africa has not been taken seriously. The implication is that assertion is a fear of its death as many scholars in Africa have given it less attention. To address the gap and deepen the conversation, this study explored Nkem Okoh's Preface to Oral Literature shedding light on its perspective on the ongoing discussions about oral literature in Africa. The goal is to offer a detailed understanding and assessment of African oral literature, using this text as a case study. The analysis relies on postcolonial criticism and a qualitative research approach. Two key questions guide the research: How does Preface to Oral Literature contribute to debates on the form and nature of oral literature in Africa, especially concerning identity reclamation and anticolonialism? How does it criticize Euro-western scholars and their distorted views of Africa as a dark continent, contributing to the wider discourse on oral literature in Africa? The findings highlight challenges in the study of African oral literature, including issues related to naming, etymology, nomenclature, the fundamental nature of oral literature, discussions on aligning it with folklore, ownership and royalty dynamics, and the debate between evolutionist and relativist perspectives. The impact of Western biases on the analysis of African oral literature and challenges linked to understanding the consequences of the changing global literary landscape on the status of oral literature in Africa are also emphasized. The study recommends for further research, the need for a comparative analysis and assessment of the contemporary impact of oral literature in African societies.

Developing A Prototype of Module Instruction of Writing Short-Stories Integrated with Samawa Local Wisdom

Ria Saputri, Yeti Mulyati, Sumiyadi, Vismaia S. Damaianti — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The teaching modules should be carefully designed to not only cover the academic aspects of literature but also to incorporate elements that foster cultural understanding and appreciation. The goal is to create a comprehensive learning framework that allows students to explore literature in a way that is both intellectually stimulating and culturally enlightening. Therefore, this study aims to develop instructional module reflecting the didactic theories and local wisdom principles to facilitate students to practice writing short stories. These theoretical principles are integrated in the module components, namely in the material, training and evaluation sections, student activities in the Module, glossary, and Module illustrations/graphics. The research method uses the R2D2 (Reflective, Recursive, Design and Development) design. Characteristics of the R2D2 model include being recursive, non-linear, sometimes irregular, reflective, and collaborative. However, this model emphasizes learning in a meaningful context. Formative assessment is considered highly important. This research method emphasizes the subjectivity of the model developer. The research commenced with a reflective activity, which is the needs analysis phase, aimed at elucidating the gaps in short story writing instruction. To obtain accurate information regarding the issues at hand, the researcher engaged in a recursive process encompassing all components related to learning and the design of the short story writing module. The results of the research are a prototype of a short story writing module that can be adapted to other text genres in various literary learning materials.

The Effectiveness of Drill Method in Improving Language Students’ Listening Skills of News at the Islamic-Affiliated Middle Schools

Irma Heryani, Jimat Susilo Jimat, Susi Darihastining — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the Drill method in improving junior high school students' listening skills, particularly in the context of listening to the news. The focus was on eighth-grade students at MTsN 5 Kuningan. Observations indicated that these students generally exhibited low proficiency in news listening. To address this, the study employed an experimental approach, utilizing a quantitative research method. Data were collected through tests, employing specific research instruments such as test sheets, to evaluate the impact of the Drill method on student learning outcomes. The study involved 23 students, and the data processing techniques included statistical analysis, specifically using t-test tests. This was to determine the significant impact of the Drill method on enhancing students’ news listening skills. Results indicated a positive effect of the Drill method on students' listening abilities. A comparative analysis was conducted between the traditional lecture method and the Drill method. It was found that the Drill method was more effective, as evidenced by a t-count of 366.82, which is significantly higher than the t-table value of 2.015. This suggests that the Drill method, through its practice-oriented approach using audio-visual media, facilitates better understanding and retention of theory and information from news sources, thereby improving news listening skills among junior high school students.

The Benefits of Nurturing EFL Teachers’ Agency at the Beginning of their Professional Development Journeys

Kristian Wijaya — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

EFL educators in this modern age are vulnerable to stressful and anxiety-evoking situations while dealing with their daily teaching demands such as heavy administrative workloads, unyielding students’ behaviors, and external pressure from the educational stakeholders. To better mitigate all these inevitable educational issues, it is of key importance for second language educators to instill a higher level of agency to nurture their commitment in giving their best teaching performances for their learners. For this reason, the researcher embarked this small-scale library study by exploring the potential benefits promoted by agency contributable for the further professional development within EFL educationalists. By doing so, the forthcoming research results can potentially promote a glimpse of enlightenment for globalized ELT stakeholders to better support the continual development of EFL teachers’ agency influential for the significant advancement of the whole second language exposure quality. A library analysis methodology was selected to generate more credible, relatable, and applicable research results for the targeted educational parties. To fulfill this major specific research objective, the researcher particularly chose 20 previous EFL teachers’ agency literature having been published worldwide in varied reputable journal article platforms ranging from 2017 until 2023 year to yield more relevant research outcomes for the predetermined research fields. The thematically clustered research results highly encouraged globalized educational institutions to start prioritizing the constant development of EFL teachers’ agency to gradually transform them into more adaptable and highly dedicated educationalists.

Language Politeness in Elementary School Students Learning Activities

Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Politeness in language is an important indicator of the success of character education which must be cultivated in every aspect of life, both at school, in the family and in society. Nowadays, language politeness in the younger generation is starting to decline both in the school and family environment. In fact, elementary school age is the initial phase for building character education both in communication and behavior. The importance of politeness in language as a reflection of a person's character in establishing communication and human social interaction. This encourages the need to conduct research related to the use of speech in building students' character. This research uses a qualitative approach. Participants in this research were teachers and students. Data is collected through listening, recording and noting the results of observations. The research results found two principles of compliance and violation of language politeness. The principle of obedience consists of the maxim of generosity contained in speech about respecting others and speech about generosity. Meanwhile, the utterance of the maxim of sympathy is contained in the speech of an attitude of sympathy. Furthermore, violations or deviations from the principles of politeness were found in several maxims in Indonesian language learning activities. Violations of the principles of language politeness that were found included violations of language politeness, the maxims of consensus and generosity. This is because students are used to using Javanese and Indonesian in communication so that code mixing occurs.

Meta-Analysis: The Effect of Word Search, Wordwall, Crossword, & Scramble Games in Learning English Vocabulary

Baiq Siti Humaeratul Azizah, Hidayati, Irwandi, Edi — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Games are one way to make learning vocabulary fun, especially with attractive games such as Word search, Wordwall, Crossword, and Scramble. By using the meta-analysis research aimed at reviewing the effect of word search games, wordwall, crossword, and scramble games to improve student vocabulary. The results of the research observed as much as 54 eligible data with the number of participants (N), F-count, t-count and r-count. Data analysis conducted with JASP software simulation shows that the effect of Word Search, Wordwall, Crossword, and Scramble for vocabulary learning is 83% significant, that is in the high category. Based on the Forest Plot, Crosswords have the highest influence value of 1.04% more than word search, wordwall, and scramble this indicate that Crossword games are more effective in learning vocabulary. Subsequently, viewed from the variety of participants, participants with less than (40) have the highest effect with an estimate value of (1.009). The results of this research provide strong evidence regarding the effect of the games in improve students' vocabulary learning. The practical use of these findings can be maximized by educators and adopt policies in designing more effective learning to improve students' vocabulary in learning English.

Investigating EFL Police Officers’ Learning Needs and Problems in English Listening and Speaking Skills: An English Specific Purposes (ESP) Context

I Made Ivan Prima Nugraha, Arif Rahman, Rimajon Sotlikova — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This research delves into the imperative nature of English speaking and listening competencies for tourist police officers and travel agents, crucial for efficacious communication with international tourists. Specifically, it focuses on the English linguistic needs and challenges faced by Mataram Police Officers (MPOs) stationed at the Mataram Town Police Station's counter. Adopting a qualitative methodology, the study employs questionnaires and interviews to gather data, involving a cohort of 15 police officers from Mataram as participants. The findings illuminate that MPOs necessitate enhancement in their English listening and speaking abilities across several critical functions. These include extending greetings and assistance, soliciting personal information, understanding tourists' issues and desires, and providing details on accommodations, travel, transportation, emergency services, directions, and advice on safety, travel, and shopping. The study reveals that for effective participation in English training programs, MPOs emphasize the need for proficiency in basic conversational English, advocating for the study of English textbooks and practical dialogue exercises. It is suggested that English training sessions be conducted over weekends, with each session lasting 1.5 hours, spanning a three-month period. The preference for instructors includes Thai teachers alongside native English speakers. The research further identifies the primary challenges in listening and speaking faced by the MPOs. Listening difficulties are predominantly attributed to the varied English accents, the challenge in capturing main ideas, and understanding fundamental expressions. Conversely, the speaking impediments involve articulating basic expressions, constructing complete sentences, and the pronunciation of English vowels. This study not only highlights the linguistic gaps in the professional capabilities of MPOs but also proposes targeted educational interventions to bridge these gaps, underscoring the significance of tailored English language training in enhancing the tourism policing experience.

The Efficaccy of Roundtable Technique on EFL Students' Writing Skills: An Experience Learned from a Remote Area

Jusmin HJ Wahid, Iwan Irawan, Shuai Ma, Moh Julfandi Koroy — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Writing is a skill to express ideas and thoughts to make a message explicit. To arrange an idea in written text the students’ need soft skill in completing a text; grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary are the most important aspect in the writing skill that should be mastered by the students organizing the ideas. To attain the students' comprehend and overcome the obstacles in the writing skill, the researchers implementing a roundtable technique in the teaching process.The research aims to investigate the efficacy of the roundtable technique on EFL students' writing skills. Then, the researchers implement quasi-experimental design, Totally 46 students in each class. In addition, the researchers implement writing test as research instrument. The finding showed that the Roundtable technique is an effective way to improve students' writing skills and can stimulate students' attention to the writing skills. In addition, students found their identity and were more confident in elaborating the good ideas. The two classes proved that the significance of the experimental class is higher than the control and the significant score is 0.0. This means that the roundtable technique is an effective way to implement in the classroom. It can encourage students to more focus on the issue and update the new information to improve their writing skills. Moreover, it is an enjoyable technique to implement in the classroom to create a good atmosphere and can improve students' attention in the writing process. Roundtable As a recommended solution to the English teachers and lecturers in prioritize to students writing skills. These is design to specifically improve students' grammar, punctuation, and vocabulary mastery in writing skills.

Students' Perceptions of Using the OpenAI ChatGPT Application in Improving Writing Skills

Joice Angela Zebua Zebua, Caroline Victorine Katemba — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

This study investigates the perceptions of utilizing the ChatGPT OpenAI application to enhance students' writing skills. One rapidly developing AI application is ChatGPT, a language model that can assist in writing. The purpose of this study is to explore students' perceptions of using the OpenAI ChatGPT application to improve their writing skills. This research uses a quantitative approach with data collection through a Likert-type closed questionnaire. A total of 82 students from various study programs at Universitas Advent Indonesia who have been using OpenAI ChatGPT for a minimum of four months were respondents in this study. The results show that the majority of respondents have a positive perception of using OpenAI ChatGPT to enhance learning motivation (41.25%), provide comprehensive and easy-to-use features (41%), and help correct grammar errors in writing articles (35.25%). However, some respondents feel neutral about OpenAI ChatGPT's ability to provide explanations that can improve writing skills (37.50%). It can be concluded that the use of OpenAI ChatGPT can be a useful tool in improving students' English writing skills. This study also indicates the potential for further development in providing more in-depth explanations.

Investigating Teachers’ Roles in Forming EFL Learners’ Self- Confidence: A Lesson Learned for Young Learners

Juliani, Febrina Dafit — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Trust in oneself is a crucial aspect of personality development for students. The role of teachers is pivotal in fostering this self-trust among students. However, the implementation of this role often falls short, leading to instances where students lack confidence, such as feeling embarrassed when answering questions in front of the class. This study aims to delve into the teacher's role in cultivating students' self-trust, particularly among young learners in elementary schools. It employs a descriptive qualitative approach, utilizing observation sheets, interview guidelines, and documentation to gather data. The data is analyzed qualitatively through techniques such as data condensation, data display, and drawing conclusions. The findings reveal several key roles that teachers play in nurturing EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners' self-confidence, including acting as motivators, providing feedback, facilitating communication, and offering information. Implications for further studies include exploring the effectiveness of specific teaching strategies in enhancing students' trust in themselves and investigating the long-term effects of teacher-student interactions on self-confidence development.

The Use of Picture-Based English Materials to Improve Students’ Vocabulary Mastery for States Elementary Schools

Muhsinin, Arif Rahman, Ahmad Javed Hassan, Said Malika Tridane Manu — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The research aimed to find out improving students’ vocabulary mastery by using pictures. This research was conducted by using Classroom Action Research (CAR). The subject of this research was grade III of MIN 2 Mataram 2023/2024 academic year which consisted of 35 students consisting of 20 female and 15 male. The object of this research was to improve the students’ vocabulary mastery through pictures. This researcher was conducted in two cycles which each consists’ of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. The data were gathered through qualitative and quantitative data. The qualitative data were gained by analyzing the test and observation result. Then, quantitative data were obtained from the students’ vocabulary score of pre-test and post-test. Based on the result of this research showed that there was a development on the students’ vocabulary mastery, it can be seen if the score of students who got >73 grew up. It can be seen from the mean score of pre-test were 61.31, the mean score of post-test 1 was 72.39, and the mean score of pot-test cycle 2 was 82.39. In addition, there were 12 students (31,57%) who passed Minimum Mastery Criterion (KKM) in the post test of cycle 1. Meanwhile, in the cycle 2, there were 23 students (89, 4%) who passed Minimum Mastery Criterion (KKM). so the criteria of success was achieved. Then, from the result of observation it showed that there was improvement of positive responses in the teaching-learning process of vocabulary through pictures as media and it also showed that the students were motivated in teaching-learning process during the implementation of pictures.

The Use of Collaborative Method through Jeopardy Games to Enhance Learners’ Vocabulary Knowledge

Melda Nofriyanti Sinaga, Debora Chaterin Simanjuntak — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Vocabulary knowledge is a primary aspect of understanding word meanings, including definition, nuances, and usage in different contexts. This research aims to explore the use of the Collaborative method through Jeopardy games in enhancing students’ vocabulary knowledge. This research is a quantitative study, utilizing a comparative research design. The research involved 8th graders as the respondents. The paired sample T-test was used to assess the effectiveness of the method. Based on the findings, the Jeopardy games used in conjunction with the collaborative method significantly enhanced students’ vocabulary knowledge. The implications of this research indicate that the combination of Jeopardy games and collaborative methods appears to have advantages in improving language skills and vocabulary retention, as perceived by a significant portion of students; wherein, 82% of students perceived vocabulary growth after using Jeopardy games in a collaborative method and 73% of students found Jeopardy games used with collaborative methods to be interesting. There has been a marked improvement in students’ vocabulary knowledge. Incorporating interactive and collaborative activities, such as Jeopardy games, into language learning provides students with opportunities to improve their learning experiences and outcomes.

The Communication Strategies to Avoid Conflicts When Speaking to Sasak Speakers: A Language Style Analysis

Sugianto, Tawali — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Sasak language is a language spoken by mostly whole people who live in Lombok Island, West Nusa Tenggara. As a main media of communication in Lombok, the possibility to get interact with them is wide open since Lombok had become a famous place stayed by various person from all around the world. For the sake of maintaining good relationship with people in Lombok who speak sasaknese, it is crucial to find out what kind of conflicts might happen when communicate to them. Therefore, here is the research aimed at uncovering the conflicts avoidances utilized by speakers of "Sasak," a language belonging to the Austronesian language family, when they converse in "Sasaknese." The study qualitatively describes how Sasak speakers maintain a good relationship and avoid getting involved into possible conflicts through language style and language used. To ensure the accuracy and validity of the data regarding Sasaknese conflict avoiding styles, some relevant literatures on pertinent issues was extensively reviewed to provide supporting data sources. Data collection and analysis followed three stages of analysis: data reduction, data display, and conclusion drawing and verification. Based on the result of analysis, the study showed that communication strategies applied by Sasak speakers include noble language, Commoner language, and conventional language. Noble language applied formal lexicon, intricate grammatical structures, and deferential speech patterns. The commoner language is used among ordinary people in everyday interactions, including among peers, friends, and family members. It is more casual and relaxed compared to noble language, with simpler vocabulary and grammar. Conventional language refers to rude language and is categorized as low status but it contibutes in avoiding conflict.

Teaching Strategies Applied by EFL Teachers at Inclusive Classroom: An Learning Experince Learnt from Inclusive Classes

Neliyam Tiraeni, Lalu Ari Irawan, Arif Rahman — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The term inclusion in the field of education is broadly defined as the incorporation of students with disabilities or those with special needs into general classrooms. In this regard, inclusive education represents a concept of education with the aim of fulfilling human rights in terms of education without any sense of discrimination. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the pedagogical strategies used by teachers to teach English in inclusive classrooms. This study applies a descriptive qualitative method embracing the data collection techniques; observation, interviewing, and note-taking. The subject of this research was English teachers in the 9th grade of SMP IT Al Qimah. To analyze the data from observation, and interview, this study used data condensation, data visualization, and conclusion/verification. The results of this study show that English teachers at the immersion level apply two strategies when teaching English: active learning strategy and cooperative learning strategy. The problem that teachers encounter is the difficulty in choosing learning materials and controlling students' moods. To solve problems related to teaching English in inclusive classrooms, teachers should share and discuss with after-school teachers about students' abilities and learning goals. In addition, to enrich skills and knowledge dealing with the problems in teaching English in inclusive classes, teachers need to read many reference materials. Based on the result of the study, it is suggested that the teacher provide a smart solution besides, only sharing with shadow teachers and finding out a lot of references dealing with teaching strategies for inclusive students. Those solutions provide teachers with a lot of new insight and creativity to overlook the problems.

Questioning Strategies in the English Classroom Interaction: An Effort in Improving EFL Learners’ Language Skills

Hulmayadi Rahman, Arif Rahman, Lalu Ari Irawan — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Questioning strategies provide students with necessary springboards for communication. To encourage the students engagement and thinking in English Language learning, teachers’ need use different types of questioning strategies. Therefore, this research aims to explore the teacher’s questioning Strategies use in the English classroom interactions. The current study was focused on identifying the types of questioning strategies used by the English teachers in the English classroom interaction and finding out the teacher and students’ perception on using questioning strategy in the classroom interaction. This research used descriptive qualitative research. The technique of collecting data used by the researcher was observation and interview towards the English teachers. The instrument of this research are taken field note, transcription, interview and observation note. The results of the study shows that teachers employed several questioning strategies in the classroom, including rephrasing, simplification, repetition, decomposition, and probing. These strategies were used for various purposes based on the functions associated with each strategy. This study further indicates that based on the data interview most of the students agree with the implementation of questioning strategy during teaching and learning process. Moreover, students believe that the uses of this strategy improve their understanding of the materials and recall the previous English material especially in the beginning of the class. In addition, all of teachers give positive response to use of questioning strategies practice in English class. This is because the questions presented in the class by teachers to students are very important to examine the students understand the material provided.

The Use of Moving Class Learning Model to Enhance Speaking Skills Viewed from Motivation

Gusti Bagus Adri Yogha Reformana, Ni Wayan Prami Wahyudiantari, Huang Yan Wang — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

The moving class is a teaching and learning model designed to infuse the learning environment with a fresh atmosphere. This model involves the systematic rotation of students between classrooms according to a predetermined schedule, thereby facilitating varied interactions and experiences. In this context, the present study endeavors to assess the effectiveness of the moving class learning model in enhancing students' speaking skills, with a specific focus on motivation. Employing classroom action research (CAR) as the methodological framework, the study progresses through distinct phases, including planning, implementation, evaluation, and reflection. The research participants consist of second-grade students from SMP Dwijendra Mataram, and the evaluation encompasses various aspects of speaking skills, including pronunciation, accuracy, grammar, vocabulary, and comprehension. Data collection methods include speaking tests and observation sheets to provide a comprehensive understanding of student performance. Through meticulous analysis, the study concludes that the utilization of the moving class learning model effectively contributes to the enhancement of students' speaking skills, particularly when viewed through the lens of motivation.

Implementing Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) Through Group Discussion in Reading Comprehension Class

Balqis Nazilah Husna Zunaedi, Frida Unsiah, Khairil Azwar Razali — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

Utilizing CLIL through group discussions has significantly enhanced the learning experience in accounting. To achieve this, CLIL is frequently integrated into reading comprehension classes to directly gather responses from international accounting program students through group discussions, aiding in managing and monitoring student engagement and comprehension. The study aimed to explore students' perspectives on the utilization of CLIL through group discussions. Six students from the international accounting program participated in a reading comprehension session employing the CLIL method through group discussions. Researchers conducted interviews to assess students' views regarding the expectations, benefits, and drawbacks of utilizing CLIL through group discussions. Findings revealed that participants perceived several advantages of using CLIL through group discussions, including improved comprehension of the material, opportunities for students to exchange their understanding, and increased motivation. However, challenges such as students' limited English fluency leading to prolonged discussions and potential misunderstandings of the material were noted. It is suggested that CLIL through group discussions be considered as an effective technique for enhancing reading comprehension.

Enhancing EFL Students’ Reading Comprehension by Applying Small Group Discussion at Higher Vocational Education

Putu Ngurah Rusmawan, Nurhalimah, Muhamad Ari Perdana, Tri Setianingsih — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

At the polytechnic level of vocational education, students learn English as one of the fundamental skills. Improving one's communication abilities is crucial for students seeking higher professional positions in the tourism industry in this age of globalization. This study aims to apply a small group discussion strategy to enhance procedural text reading comprehension. Classroom action research (CAR) was the method used to conduct this study. The four stages were preparation, execution, monitoring, and evaluation. The first cycle's results showed that the students struggled to understand the process material. Among the students, just 53% were able to achieve a score higher than the minimum requirement of 76. Though cycle 2 was successful, there were still issues, such as students who weren't really engaged in their own study. The results of the observation, the questionnaire, and the students' reading scores all verified this. Around 81% of the students were able to meet those success criteria. Students' reading comprehension in the first semester of higher vocational education at the polytechnic was improved through the use of a small group discussion technique.

The Use of Quizlet for Vocabulary Learning: A Lesson from Innovative Application

Najwa Bayaksud, Putu Dian Danayanti Degeng, Khairil Azwar Razali — Wed, 20 Mar 2024 00:00:00 +0000

As an essential element for effective communication, vocabulary knowledge plays a crucial role in language acquisition. With the increased importance of vocabulary learning, there is a new revolution called MALL (Mobile-Assisted Language learning). Several studies have looked into the possible advantages of Quizlet. However, they are mostly concentrated on the utilization of material that is already available and its consequences on the students’ motivation and receptive vocabulary acquisition. Comparatively, little research has been done on discussing the students’ perception in the use of the Quizlet application as a tool for vocabulary learning, especially in senior high school students Thus, this study aims to investigate student’s perception with different level of achievement about the use of Quizlet as a vocabulary-learning tool. The researcher used a descriptive qualitative method and interview as the instrument to get an in-depth understanding about student’s perception in the use of Quizlet. There were six students with different levels of achievement in the English course as the participants of the study. The researcher used thematic analysis to analyze the collected data. According to the findings, Quizlet is found to be a useful tool for improving vocabulary acquisition, and students' positive opinions are reinforced by its gamified elements and multimedia integration. As technology continues to shape the landscape of education, platforms like Quizlet stand as examples of how innovative applications can revolutionize the learning experience. However, the findings could be strengthened by conducting additional study with larger participant sizes, more diversified data collection methods, and longer follow-up periods.