Surmounting Obstacles in STEM Education: An In-depth Analysis of Literature Paving the Way for Proficient Pedagogy in STEM Learning

The modern educational system has recognized the significance of STEM as a vital component of students' preparation for a promising future. Consequently, there is a need for comprehensive research in STEM education, encompassing an understanding of its context, challenges

| 178   mathematics, with the primary goal of equipping students with the ability to address realworld challenges.By fostering a connection between various scientific disciplines, STEM education empowers students to develop the knowledge and skills necessary to tackle a wide array of 21st-century challenges successfully.This emphasis on STEM education has led it to become a crucial yardstick for measuring the effectiveness of human resource development in educational systems worldwide, as it directly correlates with a country's global competitiveness (Kayan-Fadlelmula et al., 2022).Furthermore, STEM education plays a pivotal role in building human capacity (Miller-Idriss & Hanauer, 2011), and acts as a potential catalyst for students to pursue careers in STEM fields later in life (Lee et al., 2019;Margot & Kettler, 2019).By instilling a sense of curiosity, creativity, and problem-solving ability, STEM education nurtures students' interest in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, thus encouraging their continued participation and contribution to these fields in the future.Its impact goes beyond traditional academic settings, as it prepares individuals to thrive in a rapidly evolving world where innovation and adaptability are paramount.
In modern education, there has been a notable surge in the emphasis on STEM as a means of preparing students for a promising future.This has led numerous educational systems to recognize the significance of incorporating STEM into their curricula (Al Salami et al., 2017;Bagiati & Evangelou, 2015).Consequently, various approaches have been adopted to integrate STEM education effectively into regular teaching methods, highlighting its vital role in the overall learning system (Holmlund et al., 2018;Li et al., 2019).The integration of STEM can take place at different levels: firstly, the disciplinary level, where concepts from each discipline are taught separately; secondly, the multi-disciplinary level, in which concepts from individual disciplines are learned independently but within the context of the same theme; thirdly, the interdisciplinary level, where concepts from two or more closely related disciplines are combined to enhance knowledge and skills; and finally, the transdisciplinary level, which involves the application of knowledge and skills from multiple disciplines to address real-world problems and engage in projects, enriching the overall learning experience (Leung, 2020).
STEM has a long history of being explored both as a separate discipline and in multidisciplinary contexts in the past.However, its development has led to a significant shift towards interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary integration, particularly in developed countries, giving rise to what is now commonly known as interdisciplinary STEM education.This approach has emerged to address a wide range of authentic challenges that demand solutions from various interdisciplinary fields.For instance, environmental pollution and waste processing issues necessitate insights from disciplines such as biological sciences, chemical sciences, and engineering.Weather forecasting, on the other hand, relies on interdisciplinary knowledge from biological sciences, chemical sciences, physical sciences, and technology.Matters concerning radiation technology draw upon expertise from all scientific domains (biology, chemistry, and physics), along with engineering and advanced technology.Even in the realm of current robotic system automation, successful implementations stem from the integration of interdisciplinary knowledge encompassing technology, engineering, and mathematics.The need for integrative knowledge in the STEM field persists across numerous contexts and applications.Overall, the evolution of STEM education towards interdisciplinary approaches has paved the way for more comprehensive and effective problem-solving, leading to innovative solutions across various scientific and technological challenges.
Up to this point, the progress of STEM education has been acknowledged in several developed countries, like the United States, where it is seen as a crucial factor for future industrial resource development (Lee et al., 2019).This progress is attributed to educational reforms that focus on fostering complex engineering and technology skills in students and promoting their active involvement in a knowledge-based modern economy (Börner et al., 2018;van Laar et al., 2017).However, it should be noted that challenges persist for educators in implementing STEM education, as highlighted in various reports (Ryu et al., 2019).These challenges are particularly evident in developing countries across Asia (Lee et al., 2019).Additionally, the limited availability of STEM integration models in the existing literature creates further obstacles for teachers attempting to effectively implement integrated STEM education in schools (Smith et al., 2022).Recognizing the importance of addressing these issues, Lee et al. (2019) advocate for more research to be conducted on the implementation of STEM education by teachers in developing countries, where knowledge about effective implementation and strategies for improving effectiveness remains limited.
The exploration of STEM pedagogy has gained significant importance in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of its effectiveness and address the challenges in STEM learning.Thus, in this particular research, a specific focus is given to defining the terminology of STEM education within the context of STEM learning.The primary objectives of this study are as follows (1) to investigate the trends in research concerning the challenges and opportunities faced in STEM education; (2) to examine the current challenges and opportunities in STEM education; (3) to propose solution approaches to tackle the challenges encountered in STEM education and learning; and (4) to outline the characteristics of effective STEM pedagogy.

METHOD
In order to accomplish the objectives of this research, an extensive examination of existing literature in the domain of STEM education and learning was carried out, with a particular focus on employing bibliometric analysis.This analysis not only serves as a foundation for assessing the prevailing challenges in STEM education and learning but also involves an exploration of various approaches to overcome these obstacles and elucidates the principles of effective STEM pedagogy.The methodology for the bibliometric analysis was adapted from a prior study by Wirzal et al. (2022), and it constitutes a comprehensive review of relevant literature centered around the theme of "challenges and opportunities in STEM education." This literature review encompasses a wide array of sources, including scholarly studies, documents, and specialized databases, thus adding to its depth and credibility.Essentially, this research also qualifies as a meta-analysis, where the collective findings from multiple studies are analyzed and synthesized to gain a comprehensive perspective on the study matter.By undertaking this meticulous approach, the study seeks to shed light on the pressing issues within STEM education and learning while presenting potential solutions and effective pedagogical methods to enhance the overall learning experience in STEM disciplines.
The bibliometric analysis was performed utilizing the SCOPUS database (https://www.scopus.com/)as the primary information source, which is renowned for its unparalleled accuracy and is widely regarded as one of the most reliable repositories of scholarly data globally.Notably, the SCOPUS database assesses the quality of articles within a publisher's purview, ensuring the inclusion of only top-notch publications.The database boasts comprehensive features that enable users to meticulously explore high-quality articles based on various criteria, such as authorship, titles, publication years, publishers, citation counts, and other metric data, ensuring precise and insightful analyses.On May 1st, 2023, a bibliometric analysis was undertaken using the SCOPUS database, employing relevant English keywords and search terms related to the subject of the study.The selection of SCOPUS as the database was carefully considered to ensure comprehensive coverage of materials pertinent to the research topic, "challenges and opportunities in STEM education" ("TITLE-ABS-KEY": 'Challenges' AND 'and' AND 'opportunities' AND 'in' AND 'STEM' AND 'education').Notably, this search was not restricted by any specific year, subject area, document type, or source, allowing for a comprehensive examination of available data.
The screening process is carried out to ensure that the documents being analyzed are closely related to the themes in this study.The screening process is as presented in Figure 1.Throughout the process, each search result was meticulously documented and curated in a (.ris)/(.csv) file to maintain a systematic record.Additionally, visual representations of the data were captured through screen printing (prt-scr) from the SCOPUS database, facilitating a detailed analysis and constructive discussions.The bibliometric analysis yielded valuable insights, forming the foundation for exploring the current challenges and opportunities in STEM education and learning, as well as identifying potential approaches to overcome these obstacles and enhance effective STEM pedagogy.By drawing comparisons with other pertinent literature, the results served as a robust starting point for advancing our understanding of the complex landscape of STEM-based education challenges and solutions.

Investigate the trends in research concerning the challenges and opportunities faced in STEM education
An in-depth investigation of the topic "challenges and opportunities in STEM education" was conducted, encompassing a comprehensive review of the existing literature.The analysis comprised various study sources, documents, and data from SCOPUS, spanning a period of ten years, from 2013 to 2023.The research yielded a total of forty-eight relevant documents during this time frame, as depicted in Figure 2.For eligibility, 20 articles were selected out of 48 articles representing discussions related to the them in the last ten years (2013 to 2023).The scope of this subject area not only encompasses STEM fields but also extends to intersecting domains like social science, environmental science, psychology, and others.To access the list of documents specifically related to the theme of "challenges and opportunities in STEM education" kindly refer to Table 1, which can be found on the SCOPUS database https://www.scopus.com/.Expanding on the examination of the articles presented in Table 1, it was observed that nearly all of the research pertaining to STEM education and learning acknowledges the significance of effective STEM pedagogy in fostering knowledge.The challenges and opportunities in STEM education form a dynamic landscape that demands a comprehensive approach.By addressing issues of STEM education, we can bridge the gaps and harness the potential of STEM education.Empowering students with the right skills and knowledge not only prepares them for the future but also cultivates a generation of thinkers and problemsolvers capable of shaping a better world through innovation and excellence.Nevertheless, while conducting a thorough review of various literature sources, certain challenges in STEM education and learning were also discovered.These challenges are deemed crucial to the present study, and thus, strategies to address each of these obstacles are extensively discussed.

Examine the current challenges in STEM education and learning
STEM education has been widely embraced by numerous countries as an essential component of modern education.Nonetheless, its adoption has introduced a set of challenges, mainly because it departs from the traditional subject-based paradigm.As a consequence, researchers have directed their efforts towards comprehensively identifying the barriers that hinder the effective implementation of STEM education.
In the scope of this study, a thorough examination revealed at least six key challenges confronting STEM education and learning.These challenges encompass pedagogical challenges, curriculum-related issues, structural complexities, student apprehensions, assessment concerns, and the critical need for teacher support.Notably, these findings resonate with previous research conducted by Margot and Kettler (2019) and have been further corroborated by investigations carried out in diverse contexts by scholars such as Bagiati and Evangelou (2015), Dong et al. (2020), Holstein and Keene (2013), and Shernoff et al. (2017).To shed light on these barriers, the study draws upon relevant literature and builds upon the insights provided by earlier research.Moreover, the paper offers valuable recommendations and potential solutions to surmount the challenges and obstacles that impede the successful implementation of STEM education.

Figure 3. Six key challenges confronting STEM education and learning
In conclusion, the widespread integration of STEM education in various educational systems has not been without its difficulties.The unconventional nature of STEM compared to traditional subject-based teaching has led to the emergence of several impediments.Through a meticulous examination of the subject, this study has identified six main challenges encompassing pedagogy, curriculum, structure, student perspectives, assessment practices, and the crucial aspect of teacher support.These findings find alignment with previous research, underlining the significance and universality of these challenges.In light of these barriers, the study not only delves into relevant past works but also proposes actionable recommendations to effectively address and overcome these challenges, thereby paving the way for a more successful and robust implementation of STEM education.

Pedagogical
Teachers often find the concept of integrating STEM education into their current teaching methods daunting, leading them to question their readiness to implement STEM pedagogy.STEM education necessitates an instructional approach that emphasizes student leadership in the learning process, requiring a new pedagogical framework altogether (Lesseig et al., 2016;M.-H. Park et al., 2017).Furthermore, aligning their teaching methods with the STEM curriculum is a concern shared by teachers, as highlighted by Bagiati and Evangelou (2015) and Holstein and Keene (2013).
Another major concern is addressing the diverse needs of students, as pointed out by Herro and Quigley (2017).Additionally, Dare et al. (2014) suggest that teachers may fear that integrating STEM could lead to neglecting essential content concepts in science education.These challenges arise due to the interdisciplinary nature of STEM, necessitating teachers to adapt their beliefs and knowledge about STEM (Dong et al., 2020).In order to effectively address these challenges, STEM instructors must comprehend and establish a suitable pedagogical infrastructure for STEM teaching.It is crucial to overcome these obstacles to foster successful STEM pedagogy.

Curriculum
Developing a comprehensive STEM curriculum poses a challenge due to its integrated nature.Interdisciplinary design is crucial for effective STEM teaching within the curriculum.Educators often encounter the complexity of creating a flexible STEM curriculum, which can be perceived as rigid and inflexible by instructors.Moreover, integrating different specific domains within STEM, such as Biology and Geometry, presents additional difficulties (Asghar et al., 2012).This integration can result in miscommunication of knowledge between teachers and their respective domains, leading to instructor anxiety when implementing the STEM curriculum (Asghar et al., 2012;Bell, 2016;EL-Deghaidy et al., 2017).
To overcome these challenges and build effective STEM curricula, educators must recognize the interdisciplinary nature of STEM, acquire knowledge of integrating studies across STEM fields, and understand the content in various STEM areas (Shernoff et al., 2017).Emphasizing these aspects can offer opportunities for success in developing well-rounded STEM educational programs.

Structural
The conventional organizational frameworks found in educational institutions like schools and universities can pose significant obstacles to the adoption of innovative STEM education practices, as highlighted in various research studies (Dong et al., 2020;Margot & Kettler, 2019;Shernoff et al., 2017).The specific policies and structure of these institutions can significantly influence the successful implementation and advancement of STEM education initiatives.Unlike other academic disciplines, STEM learning typically demands more time and resources.However, when school policies restrict the allocation of time for STEM learning, it can have detrimental effects on the effective planning and execution of STEM education programs.Furthermore, frequent changes to the curriculum driven by policy decisions can create additional challenges and burden teachers in devising effective STEM education strategies (Herro & Quigley, 2017).
Several research studies have also explored other structural barriers, including administrative hurdles (Clark & Andrews, 2010), as well as inadequate resources and infrastructure support (Wang et al., 2011).These obstacles collectively contribute to the complexity of promoting and sustaining high-quality STEM education in educational institutions.

Student concerns
The integration of STEM education encounters various obstacles, particularly regarding student capabilities.Teachers often express concerns about maintaining active student engagement in STEM learning, which can hinder the overall success of STEM education.Another critical factor is the impact of student motivation on their learning outcomes in STEM subjects (Aeschlimann et al., 2016).Some studies (Al Salami et al., 2017;Van Haneghan et al., 2015) indicate that teachers may underestimate their students' problem-solving abilities in STEM based on their teaching experiences, leading to a potential decrease in student motivation.This issue is particularly pronounced in rural areas, where students may face lower performance levels.Furthermore, addressing these diverse student needs and adapting STEM lesson plans accordingly presents a formidable challenge for educators (Goodpaster et al., 2012).Consequently, these concerns have a significant impact on how teachers approach and implement STEM learning in their classrooms (Holstein & Keene, 2013).

Assessment concerns
Teachers encounter considerable obstacles when attempting to incorporate STEM integration into their classrooms.These challenges are primarily associated with the absence of dependable assessment instruments, insufficient planning and execution time for assessments, and a lack of comprehensive STEM knowledge among educators (Margot & Kettler, 2019).One of the major contentions raised by teachers is the dearth of standardized evaluation methods specifically tailored for STEM programs.This dearth of appropriate assessment tools complicates the task of accurately gauging students' performance in STEM subjects (Nadelson & Seifert, 2013).As a result, measuring the true extent of students' grasp of STEM concepts becomes a formidable undertaking.Furthermore, the issue of whether to conduct individual or group assessments has become a subject of intense debate among educators (Herro & Quigley, 2017).Each approach has its advantages and drawbacks, making it challenging for teachers to determine which method is more effective in evaluating students' proficiency in STEM-related topics.
In conclusion, the effective implementation of STEM integration in classrooms is hampered by various impediments.These challenges include the absence of reliable assessment tools that align with STEM objectives, the limited time available for planning and executing assessments, and teachers' own inadequacies in possessing comprehensive STEM knowledge.Additionally, the absence of standard evaluation methods designed explicitly for STEM programs and the ongoing debate over the merits of individual versus group assessments further compound the complexities of accurately assessing students' performance in STEM disciplines.Addressing these challenges is crucial to creating an optimal learning environment that fosters students' growth and success in STEM education.

Teacher support
The teacher plays a central role in the implementation of policies for STEM education and learning.They carry the responsibility for various aspects of STEM education, making their support crucial in this context.However, managing the additional workload associated with STEM education can be challenging for teachers.This includes tasks such as developing effective pedagogical frameworks for STEM, integrating STEM curricula into their plans, preparing students to excel in STEM subjects, creating suitable assessment tools, and more (Margot & Kettler, 2019).Teachers often find themselves needing to invest extra time in STEM education.
One significant challenge faced by educators when implementing STEM education is the shortage of time, particularly when they have to fulfill other administrative demands (H.  Park et al., 2016).Additionally, some teachers feel that their knowledge of STEM subjects is insufficient, which can impact the success of STEM education provision.Studies have shown that pre-service teacher training programs often do not adequately prepare teachers for teaching STEM (Al Salami et al., 2017;Hsu, 2021;Nadelson & Seifert, 2013).Moreover, teachers express concern about the high expectations placed upon them by schools and policymakers regarding student STEM learning outcomes.Although teachers understand the importance of integrating STEM subjects into the curriculum, they lack confidence in effectively delivering STEM lessons, potentially affecting the overall effectiveness of STEM teaching.

Propose solution approaches to tackle the challenges encountered in STEM education and learning
As of now, the existing body of literature on overcoming challenges in STEM education and learning appears limited.Nevertheless, through a comprehensive analysis of relevant studies, we have identified several potential approaches to tackle these obstacles, as outlined in Table 2.

Challenges
Propose solution approaches

Pedagogical
• The unpreparedness of educators in adopting STEM pedagogy can be attributed to their limited comprehension of the most effective ways to implement it in the classroom.
• Each educator in the STEM field must possess a comprehensive understanding of and construct an appropriate and efficient pedagogical framework for facilitating STEM education.

Curriculum
• The development of STEM curriculum encounters challenges due to its interdisciplinary nature, particularly in the integration of various specific content or domains within the field.

Challenges Propose solution approaches
Student concerns • The level of enthusiasm among students for STEM subjects is noticeably limited, leading to a discernible influence on their overall performance in STEM education.
• The topic at hand concerns the organization of STEM education, incorporating a proficient pedagogical approach to foster motivation in students engaging with STEM subjects.

Assessment concerns
• At present, a universally accepted evaluation approach for STEM programs is yet to be established, presenting a formidable undertaking for educators to effectively gauge the achievements of their STEM students.
• A robust evaluation approach is crucial for STEM programs, specifically aligned with the approved curriculum.The field of STEM demands the incorporation of authentic assessment techniques to gauge student performance effectively.
Teacher support • The limited familiarity of educators with the STEM field, combined with the added burden on their responsibilities, impedes their ability to fully embrace and facilitate the integration of STEM education.
• The implementation of teacher training programs is crucial for effectively instructing STEM subjects, aiming to equip every educator with a comprehensive understanding of the respective STEM domain..
While teachers play a crucial role in the implementation of STEM education policies, the responsibility for addressing challenges extends beyond them.The issues pertaining to curriculum seem to involve all stakeholders in STEM education, such as policy makers, schools, and teachers.Structural challenges, on the other hand, squarely fall under the responsibility of schools and governments, who should actively promote the growth of STEM education within educational institutions.This includes addressing concerns related to assessments in line with the curriculum and providing adequate support to teachers.
Consequently, teachers shoulder a significant burden in establishing an effective pedagogical framework for STEM education and fostering a conducive learning environment.By doing so, they can effectively address student concerns and contribute to problem-solving initiatives.

The characteristics of effective STEM pedagogy
Developing effective STEM pedagogy presents an epistemic challenge when transitioning from one discipline to another within the STEM scope.This challenge arises due to the unique practices inherent in each STEM field, making modification difficult (Leung, 2020).Therefore, to address this issue, it becomes essential to establish a comprehensive learning framework that embraces the interdisciplinary nature of STEM.Such a framework should focus on nurturing students' knowledge, skills, attitudes, and fostering positive learning outcomes across different STEM disciplines.
The significance of effective pedagogy in STEM education cannot be overstated.STEM subjects are deeply integrated across various disciplines, underscoring the importance of cultivating STEM competencies.By employing effective pedagogy, students can gain a profound understanding of the concepts, methods, and practices specific to STEM fields, In summary, a well-structured and effective pedagogical approach is vital for unlocking the full potential of STEM education, fostering interdisciplinary connections, and preparing students to tackle real-world challenges in the dynamic fields of STEM.

Figure 4. The characteristics of effective STEM pedagogy
Effective pedagogy in STEM education involves fostering an innovative and engaging learning environment that promotes inquiry, experimentation, and critical thinking among students.By encouraging students to ask questions and providing opportunities for exploration, teachers empower them to become active learners responsible for their own educational journey (Ryoo & Winkelmann, 2021).This approach to teaching not only allows students to develop a deeper understanding of STEM concepts but also enhances their chances of success in STEM learning.
Innovative learning is characterized by processes that encourage inquiry and experimentation, leading to activities that foster critical thinking (Wahyudi et al., 2019).Scientific literacy achieved through exploration, experimentation, and inquiry has been shown to improve students' critical thinking performance in STEM subjects (Bilad, Doyan, et al., 2022).Moreover, inquiry-based learning has been found effective in guiding STEM education both in separate and integrated disciplines.In integrated STEM, technology serves as a bridge to integrate science, engineering, and mathematics teaching, resulting in improved scientific skills and learning motivation (Wang et al., 2015).Even in remote learning, the presence of technology facilitates the acquisition of critical thinking skills among STEM students (Bilad, Anwar, et al., 2022).
Secondly, effective pedagogy in STEM demands the use of authentic learning methods and relevant resources.Teachers must adopt various authentic problem-solving approaches such as problem-based learning (PBL), project-based learning (PjBL), and case-based learning (CBL).PBL, in particular, has proven to be a successful model in building students' knowledge and skills, metacognitive reasoning, motivation, and collaboration in STEM education (Biazus & Mahtari, 2022;Ekayanti et al., 2022;Hidayat & Evendi, 2022).Similarly, PjBL and CBL are valuable tools to develop problem-solving abilities and enhance student motivation and interest in learning (Coufal, 2022;Domenici, 2022;Oyewo et al., 2022).Teachers should also incorporate multimedia, simulations, and real-world applications to make STEM subjects more accessible to students.Technological resources play a crucial role in bridging the gap between students and abstract STEM content such as cells, sound waves, and electric current.
Thirdly, effective pedagogy in STEM education requires the facilitation of a collaborative learning environment.STEM professionals often work in teams, and collaborative learning helps students develop essential skills such as teamwork, communication, and problem-solving.Encouraging students to work together, share ideas, and actively participate in group discussions promotes positive collaboration in STEM learning.Studies have demonstrated that collaborative work enhances STEM students' cognitive performance (Lange et al., 2021) and teamwork skills, leading to the production of higher-quality products (Kilty & Burrows, 2022).
Fourth, effective pedagogy entails creating a culturally responsive and inclusive learning environment that caters to diverse learners.STEM education must be accessible and equitable for all students, regardless of their backgrounds.Recognizing and addressing the diversity of cultures, perspectives, and student experiences in STEM is crucial.Teachers must actively work to create a STEM learning environment that is responsive to inclusiveness (Edelen & Bush, 2021) and promotes positive perceptions of STEM learning among students (Clements et al., 2021).
Lastly, effective pedagogy in STEM education necessitates continuous evaluation and reflection on teaching practices.Teachers should consistently assess student learning outcomes, adapt learning methods, and seek professional development opportunities to enhance their teaching skills in STEM.Reflection plays a crucial role in deepening knowledge about STEM issues, evaluating pedagogical practices, including inclusivity, and improving STEM learning planning (Archer et al., 2022;ElSayary, 2021;Sahin & Top, 2015).By implementing effective pedagogy, educators can better prepare students for success in the STEM field, contributing to the advancement of knowledge in STEM education and learning.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The exploration of STEM education and learning has been a subject of study to gain a comprehensive understanding of its context, existing challenges, and effective teaching methods.Ongoing research in the field is contributing to the development of STEM education, positively impacting students' knowledge, problem-solving abilities, critical thinking, and mastery of concepts.Various challenges exist in STEM education, including pedagogical, curriculum, structural, student-related, assessment, and teacher support issues.Among these, the pedagogical challenge holds utmost significance as teachers play a crucial role in shaping STEM education within schools.Numerous aspects of effective pedagogy in STEM education have been identified, such as creating an innovative learning environment that fosters inquiry, experimentation, and critical thinking.Additionally, the use of diverse and relevant learning

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.The process of screening documents according to the theme "challenges and opportunities in STEM education."

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. The findings from the SCOPUS data analysis over the year of 2013 to 2023: (a) documents by year; (b) documents by author; (c) documents by country or territory; and (d) documents by subject area.
Journal of Essential Competencies in Education, December 2023 Vol. 2, No. 2 | 189 equipping them to tackle real-world challenges with confidence.Several key aspects contribute to effective pedagogy in STEM education and learning, including: a) Cultivating an innovative learning environment that nurtures inquiry, experimentation, and critical thinking.b) Utilizing a diverse range of authentic learning methods and relevant educational resources.c) Facilitating a collaborative learning environment that encourages teamwork and knowledge sharing.d) Creating an inclusive learning environment that accommodates the diverse needs of students.e) Encouraging continuous reflection on and improvement of teaching practices to optimize learning outcomes.

Table 1 .
Documents related to the theme "challenges and opportunities in STEM education" International Journal of Essential Competencies in Education, December 2023 Vol. 2, No. 2 | 182 International Journal of Essential Competencies in Education, December 2023 Vol. 2, No. 2 | 183