International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture
International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture (IJLIC) explores and contributes to the field of linguistics, with a specific emphasis on indigenous languages and cultures worldwide. The journal aims to publish research articles, scholarly papers, and studies that delve into various aspects of linguistics, including language structure, phonetics, syntax, semantics, Pragmatics, sociolinguistics, language preservation, language revitalization, and language policies, all within the context of indigenous cultures. The International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture (IJLIC) is an open-access scholarly publication committed to advancing the exploration and comprehension of linguistics within the global context of indigenous cultures.
Authors who publish with the International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture (IJLIC) agree to the following terms: For all articles published in International Journal of Linguistics and Indigenous Culture (IJLIC), copyright is retained by the authors. Authors give permission to the publisher to announce the work with conditions. When the manuscript is accepted for publication, the authors agree to implement a non-exclusive transfer of publishing rights to the journals. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access). This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Peralihan Bahasa Murut di Negara Brunei Darussalam
Kajian ini meneliti fenomena peralihan bahasa Murut dalam kalangan masyarakat Puak Murut di Negara Brunei Darussalam. Kajian tentang peralihan bahasa Murut telah dilakukan oleh Coluzzi pada tahun 2010. Beliau menyatakan peralihan bahasa Murut berlaku adalah disebabkan dominasi bahasa Melayu. Maka tujuan kajian ini dilakukan untuk mengkaji semula adakah berlakunya peralihan bahasa Murut disebabkan dominasi bahasa Melayu, seperti yang dikatakan oleh Coluzzi atau ada faktor yang lain. Kajian ini menggunakan metode kaji selidik yang diedarkan secara dalam talian. Data dianalisis secara deskriptif yang dikaitkan dengan Teori Vitaliti Bahasa oleh Joshua Fishman bagi mengenal pasti tahap kelangsungan bahasa Murut. Antaranya, termasuk transmisi bahasa antargenerasi, domain penggunaan bahasa, sokongan institusional, dan demografi penutur. Dari analisis data dan dapatan kajian menunjukkan bahawa peralihan bahasa Murut berlaku secara signifikan dalam domain keluarga dan komuniti. Majoriti responden lebih cenderung menggunakan bahasa Melayu dalam komunikasi harian. Terdapat faktor lain juga yang menyebabkan berlakunya peralihan bahasa Murut, antaranya adalah pengaruh sosio-politik termasuk dari segi ekonomi, migrasi, pendidikan, media sosial, dan keinginan generasi muda untuk menguasai bahasa lain. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa sokongan institusional terhadap pemertahanan bahasa Murut masih rendah. Namun begitu, responden ada mencadangkan pelbagai langkah pemeliharaan, seperti pendidikan bahasa Murut, aktiviti kebudayaan, sokongan komuniti, dan pemanfaatan teknologi moden. Language Shift among the Murut Community in Brunei Darussalam Abstract This is study examines the phenomenon of Murut language transition among the Murut community in Brunei Darussalam. A study on the Murut language transition was conducted by Coluzzi in 2010. He stated that the Murut language transition occurred due to the dominance of the Malay language. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to review whether the Murut language transition occurred due to the dominance of the Malay language, as Coluzzi said, or were there other factors. This study used a survey method distributed online. Data was analyzed descriptively linked to the Language Vitality Theory by Joshua Fishman to identify the level of survival of the Murut language. Among them, including intergenerational language transmission, language use domain, institutional support, and speaker demographics. From the data analysis and study findings, it is shown that the Murut language transition occurred significantly in the family and community domains. The majority of respondents are more likely to use the Malay language in daily communication. There are also other factors that cause the Murut language transition, including socio-political influences including in terms of economy, migration, education, social media, and the desire of the younger generation to master another language. This study found that institutional support for the preservation of the Murut language is still low. However, respondents suggested various preservation measures, such as Murut language education, cultural activities, community support, and the use of modern technology.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mardina Haji Mahadi, Serianie Abdullah Sofian https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Analisis Perbandingan Perambahan Melayu Brunei dan Peribahasa Melayu Malaysia yang Bersumberkan Objek 'Ayam' dari Sudut Pragmatik
Peribahasa merupakan ungkapan yang mendukung makna tersirat yang digunakan oleh penutur untuk menyampaikan kritikan, teguran, nasihat dan pujian dengan cara yang halus. Peribahasa juga mencerminkan kebijaksanaan akal budi, nilai, etika, falsafah hidup dan pengamatan yang tinggi penciptanya terhadap simbol atau objek yang digunakan dalam peribahasa yang dicipta. Dalam konteks peribahasa di Nusantara, peribahasa yang terhasil seringkali menggunakan objek flora dan fauna serta ciri dan tingkah laku objek ini sebagai kiasan terhadap tingkah laku manusia. Oleh itu, kajian ini dijalankan dengan tujuan untuk meneliti penggunaan simbol ‘ayam’ dalam perambahan Melayu Brunei dan peribahasa Malaysia serta membandingkan bentuk serta makna yang didukung oleh peribahasa yang bersumberkan objek ‘ayam’. Selain itu, kajian ini juga menganalisis pengaruh latar belakang sosial dan budaya serta sudut pandang masyarakat di dua buah negara ini terhadap pembinaan peribahasa yang menggunakan objek yang sama. Berdasarkan pendekatan pragmatik, iaitu teori Relevans, kajian ini menganalisis perambahan Melayu Brunei dan peribahasa Melayu Malaysia bagi menjelaskan maksud tersirat peribahasa ini dan kewajaran pemilihan objek ‘ayam’ dalam peribahasa. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa daripada 86 peribahasa yang menggunakan leksikal ‘ayam’, hanya 12 perambahan daripada Melayu Brunei dan 74 peribahasa daripada Melayu Malaysia. 35% daripada jumlah tersebut mempunyai bentuk dan makna yang sama, 42% mempunyai bentuk yang berbeza tetapi mempunyai makna yang sama, dan 23% berbeza bentuk dan berbeza makna. Persamaan ini menunjukkan perkongsian sudut pandangan dunia dan latar budaya yang sama dalam masyarakat Melayu serantau, manakala perbezaannya mencerminkan pengaruh konteks sosio-budaya dan leksikal tempatan. Kajian ini juga menunjukkan bahawa masyarakat Melayu di kedua-dua negara mengamalkan prinsip komunikasi yang berlapik melalui peribahasa untuk memberikan nasihat, teguran, dan sindiran secara halus mengikut prinsip Relevans. Kajian ini diharapkan dapat dimanfaatkn oleh para penyelidik, dan masyarakat amnya untuk memahami dengan lebih mendalam tentang warisan peribahasa dalam rumpun Melayu secara pragmatik, dan terus memperkukuh kajian dalam bidang ini dari perspektif baharu.
Siti Nurul Haziqah Syazwani Khairur Rijal
Copyright (c) 2025 Hasmidar Hassan, Siti Nurul Haziqah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Role of English for Forestry Students: A Needs Analysis in East Borneo
In the context of globalization, this research emphasizes the crucial relevance of solid English abilities, highlighting the function that English plays as a core discipline in higher education. In order to achieve learning objectives and aims, the research is primarily concerned with resolving difficulties that are relevant to students. The purpose of this research is to specifically explore the function that English plays in the area of forestry by exploring Need Analysis among Forestry students in Mulawarman University. The study reveals key findings by employing tools such as questionnaires and observation checklists. These findings include a high level of motivation and persistence among Forestry students in the process of learning English, proficient grammar skills, a future emphasis on communication skills, and the prevalence of English usage in international conferences and workshops within the forestry domain. Not only do these findings offer to a more nuanced understanding of the role of English in forestry education, but they also influence efficient methods of teaching English for Specific Purpose.
Copyright (c) 2025 Wilma Prafitri, Muhammad Alim Akbar Nasir https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Strategi Translaguaging dalam Meningkatkan Penguasaan Bahasa Melayu Standard di Universiti Brunei Darussalam
Dalam konteks pendidikan dwibahasa di Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), pelajar perlu menguasai kedua-dua bahasa, iaitu bahasa Melayu standard (BMS) dan bahasa Inggeris (BI), bagi tujuan akademik dan komunikasi. Namun, realiti menunjukkan bahawa sebahagian pelajar lebih cenderung menggunakan BI berbanding BMS dalam situasi pembelajaran formal. Keadaan ini menimbulkan persoalan tentang bagaimana pendekatan pedagogi dapat membantu memperkukuh penguasaan BMS tanpa menafikan peranan BI dalam proses pembelajaran. Kajian ini meneliti peranan konsep translanguaging dalam meningkatkan penguasaan BMS dalam kalangan pelajar UBD. Reka bentuk kajian campuran digunakan dengan pengumpulan data kuantitatif dan kualitatif daripada 26 orang responden melalui soal selidik dan analisis tugasan akademik. Analisis tematik dan statistik deskriptif dijalankan bagi meneliti pola penggunaan translanguaging dalam proses pembelajaran serta hubungannya dengan pencapaian akademik pelajar. Dapatan menunjukkan bahawa pelajar menggabungkan penggunaan dialek Melayu Brunei (DMB), BI, dan BMS secara fleksibel untuk meningkatkan kefahaman konsep, memudahkan komunikasi akademik, dan menyokong penghasilan penulisan ilmiah. Hasil kajian turut menunjukkan peningkatan motivasi belajar apabila pelajar dibenarkan menggunakan kedua-dua bahasa secara seimbang. Secara keseluruhan, kajian ini menegaskan kepentingan strategi pengajaran berasaskan translanguaging dalam memperkukuh penguasaan BMS dan mencadangkan penambahbaikan dasar bahasa di institusi pendidikan tinggi di Brunei. Penemuan ini menyumbang kepada pengayaan literatur serantau dan antarabangsa mengenai keberkesanan translanguaging dalam konteks pendidikan dwibahasa serta berpotensi menjadi asas kepada pembangunan pedagogi yang lebih inklusif dan berkesan di UBD. Abstract In the context of bilingual education at Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD), students need to master both Malay Standard (BMS) and English (BI) for academic and communicative purposes. However, many students tend to use BI more frequently than BMS in formal learning contexts, raising questions about pedagogical approaches that can strengthen BMS proficiency without diminishing the role of BI. This study examines the role of translanguaging in enhancing BMS proficiency among UBD students. A mixed-methods design was employed, collecting quantitative and qualitative data from 26 respondents through questionnaires and analysis of academic assignments. Thematic and descriptive statistical analyses were conducted to explore patterns of translanguaging use and its relationship with academic performance. Findings indicate that students flexibly combine Brunei Malay dialect (DMB), BI, and BMS to improve concept comprehension, facilitate academic communication, and support scholarly writing. Allowing students to use both languages also increased their learning motivation. Overall, the study emphasizes the importance of teaching strategies based on translanguaging to reinforce BMS proficiency and recommends policy improvements in higher education institutions in Brunei. The findings contribute to regional and international literature on the effectiveness of translanguaging in bilingual education and provide a foundation for developing more inclusive and effective pedagogical practices at UBD.
Copyright (c) 2025 Rabi'atul Adawiyyah Haji Hassan, Hajah Zurinah Haji Ya'akub https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Hedging in Forensic Discourse: A Case Study on Noida Double Murder Interview
This paper delves into the intricacies of forensic discourse, focusing on linguistic hedging strategies in the context of the Noida Double Murder Case. Positioned at the intersection of linguistics, law, and crime, forensic discourse analysis provides a lens to examine language in legal settings. The paper centres on the 2008 Noida Murder Case, specifically analysing the communication strategies employed by Rajesh and Nupur Talwar during an interview. The paper aims to unravel the linguistic nuances within the interview setting by utilising Taweel et al.’s Hedging Strategi model, grounded by Grice's Cooperative Principle. This paper used a qualitative analysis to decodes linguistic manoeuvres, focusing on hedging strategies. The data were taken from an in-depth interview to obtain empirical information and undergo two stages of analysis identification of conventional maxims and examination of hedging markers and strategies. The analysis reveals intentional deviations from communicative norms, exposing three prominent hedging strategies: Avoidance, Question-to-Question, and Self-Protection. These strategies serve to deflect scrutiny, shape perceptions, and navigate the delicate balance of legal discourse. This paper contributes to forensic linguistics by uncovering the role of hedging strategies in the Noida Double Murder Case. By applying theoretical frameworks to case-specific discourse, the paper enhances our understanding of linguistic dynamics in high-stakes legal interviews, emphasising their significance in navigating complex legal communication.
Copyright (c) 2024 Elmy Maswandi, Badriyah Yusof https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Class Conflict and Economic Power in Veronica Roth's Divergent: A Marxist Analysis of Factional Divisions
This research is an analysis of the novel Divergent by Veronica Roth. Overall, Divergent tells about the situation of Chicago in the future, which has five factions that support their lives in the city. In this novel there is a conflict between the upper class (Erudite, Dauntless) and the lower class (Abnegation) which is presented by the character Beatrice as the main character who is also a character in the Abnegation faction. The purpose of writing this research is to analyze the existing class differences depicted as factions and the factors used by these factions in taking over power. To achieve this goal, this research uses Marxism theory but only focuses on economic power, class conflict, and factors of conflict. This analysis uses a qualitative descriptive method. The results of this analysis use a Marxism perspective which shows that factional divisions are caused by Economic and Political factors.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ani Agustin, Famala Eka Sanhadi Rahayu, Wilma Prafitri https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Bahasa Kasar dan Hierarki Sosial: Kajian terhadap Harga Diri dalam Cerpen-Cerpen Shawal Rajab
This study examines the relationship between the use of harsh language and social hierarchy in four short stories by Shawal Rajab (2005), focusing on how language reflects characters’ self esteem based on their social status, education and economic position. Using a qualitative textual analysis, the stories Harga Kemanusiaan, IQ, Batin Terseksa! Oh… Lusa Periksa and Tuntutan are analyzed to understand characters’ communication pattersn and social interactions. The findings indicate that characters with higher social and economic status tend to use harsh, demeaning language to maintain their position, while lower status characters often become targets of disparagement. This study concludes that language serves not only as a communication tool but also as a manifestation of power and self esteem in society, highlighting the relationship between language, power and self-esteem in social interactions.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ena Herni Wasli, Amanda Fui Lin Pong https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
ESP Learners’ Attitudes Towards the Moodle Virtual Learning Environment
The incorporation of technology plays a key role in teaching and learning language skills. The integration of technology provides several opportunities for both language learners and teachers such as providing an inclusive learning environment, enabling learners to have access to various resources, and practicing language in a different way. This research investigates the attitudes of ESP learners in the context of maritime English through Moodle virtual learning platform. The study analyzes three factors such as the customization of Moodle platform to meet learners’ needs as ESP learners, critical skills development of learners, and how this platform enhances interaction among learners. A questionnaire was used by the researcher to gather data from the participants using a quantitative approach. The results showed that Moodle has great potential for customization of ESP sources due to its various features and learners can easily have access to the course contents and ESP teachers can design their courses on this platform effectively. The findings of the study also showed that learners could improve their critical thing when dealing with the course content. The platform also provides high interaction among leaners and learners with teacher. Nevertheless, educators and instructional designers must consider time constraints, inadequate resources, technical difficulties, and unfamiliarity with the platform. These findings present valuable perspectives for improving ESP courses that fulfill student needs and transform their perspectives on education.
Copyright (c) 2024 Mohammad Azim Arbabi , Deyuan He, D.G. E. Ho https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Rungus Longhouse of Bavanggazo: Preserving Sabah's Cultural Heritage
This study explores the unique cultural heritage of the Rungus people through their traditional longhouses in Bavanggazo, Sabah. It aims to understand how these architectural structures support the preservation of the Rungus language, traditions, and identity amid modernizing influences. Using a qualitative ethnographic approach, data were gathered through interviews and direct observation to capture the lived experiences within these longhouses. The findings highlight the active role of the Rungus language in daily communication, the enduring practice of cultural ceremonies, and the architectural significance of longhouses in sustaining intergenerational heritage. Furthermore, the study discusses factors contributing to the decline of traditional longhouses and the initiatives by the Rungus community to preserve this cultural symbol. By emphasizing the intersection of architecture and cultural sustainability, this research offers insights into the challenges and strategies involved in safeguarding indigenous heritage.
Copyright (c) 2024 Noor Amalia Nabilah Zainuddin, Lalu Nurul Yaqin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Exploring Brunei’s Oral Traditions: A Review of Cerita Lisan Brunei
This article reviews Cerita Lisan Brunei, a compilation of 50 folklore stories from Brunei Darussalam’s four districts: Brunei-Muara, Belait, Tutong, and Temburong. Produced by Universiti Brunei Darussalam students in the early 1990s, the book represents a significant effort to preserve Brunei’s oral heritage amidst evolving socio-cultural dynamics. This review uses qualitative descriptive analysis to examine the folklore types featured in the book—myths, legends, fables, and allegories—and evaluates its strengths and weaknesses. The book effectively highlights Brunei's cultural and historical legacy thus making it suitable for teaching and learning materials. It also contributes meaningfully to preserving Brunei’s unwritten oral traditions. However, the absence of original language transcriptions and limited contextual notes for historical and fictional stories need improvement. Adding these elements would enhance the book’s historical accuracy and reader comprehension. Despite these shortcomings, Cerita Lisan Brunei remains a valuable resource for readers of all levels, from primary to university. It would serve as an essential platform for preserving and sharing Brunei’s oral folklore tradition.
Copyright (c) 2024 Norazmie Yusof, Minah Sintian https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Acquisition of Indonesian Sentences in Children's Language Development
This study generally aims to investigate Indonesian sentence acquisition and use in early childhood. The data in this study was obtained from the speech of early childhood children in Wisma Kerta Village, Karangasem Regency, Bali Province. The data collection methods and techniques in this study are participation observation, listening, and recording methods, with note-taking techniques. The data are analyzed qualitatively and descriptively. The theory of language acquisition in early childhood by Brown (2007) is applied to examine sentence acquisition, and the theory of the realm of language use by Fishman (1968) is applied to analyze the use of language in various domains. The results of this study showed that early children had acquired sentence acquisitions in the form of negation sentences, interrogative sentences, and no passive voice. At the age of 5-6 years, the child was able to articulate each sound clearly. The sentences acquired were interrogative, declarative, imperative, and passive sentences. The use of language in family, neighborhood, work, and religion domains by early childhood used informal forms. The use of the Balinese language and its dialects were found in several utterances in each domain.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ni Putu Liana Widya Santhi, I Wayan Pastika, Ni Wayan Sukarini https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Implicature in Emily in Paris Season 1 from the Perspective of Relevance Theory
This study aims to analyze the utterances of the characters in the Emily In Paris season one series. Implicatures in the utterances are analyzed using the relevance approach as proposed by Sperber and Wilson. This study is a qualitative study. Data were collected using the observation and note-taking method. The data source used in this study was the dialogue from the Emily in Paris series. This study will use informal methods in presenting the results of data analysis. The results showed that in this series, the utterances of the characters in it contain various implicatures or implicit meanings, namely related to the differences in working hours culture between Emily and her co-workers, differences in clothing preferences between Emily and her boss, differences in perspectives on an advertisement between Emily and her co-workers, acceptance of a new culture between Emily and her co-workers, rejection of a new culture between Emily and her boss, Emily's comments on other people, namely Pierre Cadault, and Pierre Cadault's comments on himself. The implicatures of these utterances can be understood because of the relevance that connects the knowledge possessed by the speaker with the interlocutor about what is being said.
Copyright (c) 2025 Luh Putu Krissiana Permata Dewi, I Nyoman Suparwa, I Gusti Ayu Gde Sosiowati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
A Critical Discourse Analysis of CNBC Indonesia and CNN Indonesia on Russia’s Invasions of Ukraine: A Socio-Cultural Dimension
This study aims to critically examine how CNBC News and CNN News Indonesia portrayed Russia's military actions in Ukraine through the lens of Fairclough's socio-cultural dimension of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), specifically focusing on political, economic, and cultural perspectives. Using a qualitative methodology, the analysis of selected articles from both media outlets between February and August 2022 revealed that both media outlets propagated justifications for Russia’s military actions, citing geopolitical and national security concerns. For instance, the media described Russia’s actions as defensive responses to NATO's affiliations with the United States and perceived economic threats related to food and energy security. However, the analysis also uncovered differences in framing economic impacts. CNN News Indonesia highlighted immediate humanitarian and economic crises, whereas CNBC News emphasized long-term global economic implications. This research underscores the media’s influential role in shaping public perceptions of geopolitical conflicts in Indonesia.
Copyright (c) 2025 Alamsyah Alamsyah, Awang Azman Awang Pawi, Wilma Prafitri, Effendi Limbong, Lalu Nurul Yaqin, Muhammad Alim Akbar Nasir https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Concept of Contemporary Islamic Art: Bruneian Muslim Artists’ Perspective
Contemporary Islamic art has emerged into a diverse and dynamic field, shaped by diverse cultural, social, and global influences. It also reflects the intersection of traditional Islamic aesthetics and the complexity of the modern world that are seen through artist’s creative expressions worldwide, including those from Brunei Darussalam, a Muslim-majority country in Southeast Asia. Artists, as actual practitioners and producers of creative works offer unique insights into their experiences, faith, and identities, enriching the multifaceted nature of contemporary Islamic art. Despite the importance of artists' involvement, for the past 50 years, studies that specifically document artists’ perspectives on the field have yet to be found. Therefore, this qualitative study attempts to address this gap by employing face-to-face, semi-structured interviews with 10 practising Bruneian Muslim artists. These artists-participants were selected for their unique experiences as Muslims, living in a Muslim-majority country that upholds the national philosophy, the Melayu Islam Beraja (abbreviated: MIB, translated as Malay Islamic Monarchy), which places Islam at the heart of its national identity. One of the key findings of this study is the diverse thematic exploration by Bruneian Muslim artists in defining contemporary Islamic art. This includes the aspect of time, practical approaches, Islamic presence, and recognised Islamic imagery. This study provides insights into how Bruneian Muslim artists define contemporary Islamic art, drawing on their experience to shape their understanding of the term. One implication of this study is the need to recognise the importance of artists' perspectives in the field, particularly through their lived experiences as practitioners.
Copyright (c) 2025 Pg Mohd Rahiman Pg Aliudin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Teaching Maritime English to ESP Learners Through Moodle Platform
This study aimed to evaluate the impact of Moodle as a virtual learning platform on oral communication skills of Iranian seafarers as ESP (English for Specific Purposes) learners. The study collected quantitative data using a quasi-experimental design. Participants in the study were 30 Iranian seafarers, divided into two groups of 15 people in the control and experimental groups. As part of their job requirements, as mariners, participants were required to practice maritime English. The researchers used Moodle as a virtual learning platform and compared participants' pre- and post-treatment results to determine the impact of the platform on their learning outcomes. To help seafarers improve their oral communication skills at sea or offshore, participants in both groups were taught a few chapters of standard marine communication phrases. During the first week of the five-week course, students learned how to use Moodle. Treatment was done in three weeks and evaluation was done in the last week. The results showed a significant improvement in participants' maritime English oral communication skills via Moodle. The study suggests that Moodle can be an effective tool for ESP learners. Due to its practicality, easy accessibility and versatile functionality, the researchers propose using the Moodle virtual learning environment for the development of fully online-based ELT courses.
Copyright (c) 2025 Mohammad Azim Arbabi , Deyuan He, D. G. E. Ho https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Belait Language Maintenance in Brunei Darussalam
The Belait language, an endangered indigenous language of Brunei, is experiencing a significant decline due to language shift, urbanization, and reduced intergenerational transmission. This study provides a descriptive analysis of the current status of Belait, examining the sociolinguistic factors contributing to its endangerment and evaluating strategies for its preservation. Findings indicate that Belait faces challenges such as the dominance of Malay and English, limited institutional support, and a sharp decline in fluent speakers. However, community-led revitalization projects, linguistic documentation, and digital initiatives have emerged as crucial interventions to mitigate this decline. Government-supported language documentation efforts, integrating Belait into digital platforms, and community-driven educational programs have been identified as key strategies for sustaining the language. This study underscores the urgent need for structured institutional support and policy driven initiatives to complement grassroots efforts, ensuring the survival of Belait as a vital component of Brunei’s linguistic and cultural heritage. Strengthening language maintenance strategies through education, digital engagement, and government collaboration is essential to reversing the trend of language loss for future generations.
Copyright (c) 2025 Zulfadzlee Zulfadzlee, Siti Ifwah Fauzani Chuchu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Analisis Terhadap Corak Ayat Perintah dalam Titah Belia 2019 - 2024: Kajian Ayat Perintah Nyata dan Tidak Nyata
Kajian ini memfokuskan kepada analisis ayat perintah dalam titah Kebawah Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu’izzadin Waddaulah, Sultan dan Yang Di-Pertuan Negara Brunei Darussalam, khususnya tentang belia dalam tempoh lima tahun kebelakangan (2019 – 2024). Dengan menggunakan kaedah kualitatif analisis teks, kajian ini meneliti jenis dan corak ayat perintah yang nyata mahupun tidak nyata dalam titah diraja kepada golongan belia. Berlandaskan Teori Speech Act (Austin, 1962) atau Tindak Tutur merupakan salah satu pendekatan dalam bidang pragmatik yang meneliti bagaimana ujaran bukan sekadar menyampaikan maklumat tetapi juga berfungsi sebagai satu bentuk tindakan. Analisis ini memberi perhatian kepada struktur, fungsi, dan kehalusan ayat dalam titah KDYMM, yang bukan sahaja menyampaikan arahan tetapi juga nilai-nilai murni dan wawasan negara. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa penggunaan ayat perintah yang nyata dan tidak nyata, mencerminkan kebijaksanaan KDYMM dalam memberi inspirasi dan mendorong golongan belia untuk memainkan peranan sebagai pemacu utama pembangunan negara. Hasil kajian ini bukan sahaja memperkaya bidang pengajian bahasa tetapi juga memberikan sumbangan bermakna dalam memahami komunikasi dalam sistem pemerintahan beraja terutama di Negara Brunei Darussalam. Abstract This study focuses on the analysis of imperative sentences in the royal decrees of His Majesty Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah Mu’izzadin Waddaulah, Sultan and Yang Di-Pertuan of Brunei Darussalam, especially regarding youth in the past five years (2019 – 2024). Using qualitative text analysis methods, this study examines the types and patterns of imperative sentences, both explicit and implicit, in royal decrees to youth. Based on Speech Act Theory (Austin, 1962) or Tindak Tutur is one approach in the field of pragmatics that examines how utterances not only convey information but also function as a form of action., this analysis pays attention to the structure, function, and subtlety of sentences in His Majesty’s decrees, which not only convey instructions but also the nation’s noble values and vision. This study found that the use of explicit and implicit imperative sentences reflects His Majesty’s wisdom in inspiring and encouraging youth to play a role as the main drivers of national development. The results of this study not only enrich the field of language studies but also provide a meaningful contribution to understanding communication in the monarchy system, especially in Brunei Darussalam.
Copyright (c) 2025 Awangku Muhammad Mirza Muazzam, Dk Faten Fikriyah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Morphological Integration of English-Origin Loanwords in Inuktitut
English-origin loanwords in Inuktitut are integrated morphologically. As an example, the Inuktitut word guulu, from English “gold”, can undergo affixation with the bound morphemes siuq, meaning “to search for”, and vik, denoting a place where an action takes place, to create the word guulusiurvik, meaning “gold mine”, then attach to grammatical markers that indicate the function of the new word within the sentence. This paper investigates how and why these loanwords are morphologically integrated, as well as the variation observed in this integration. The corpus used for this investigation was The Nunavut Hansard Inuktitut-English Parallel Corpus 2.0, containing transcripts of all the proceedings of the Legislative Assembly of Nunavut from April 1999 to November 2007, excluding 2003. Within the corpus, the following selection of English-origin loanwords was assessed: paper, company, license, cigarette, tobacco, cheque, skidoo, gold, bus, and coffee. It is suggested that an established morphological framework for integrating loanwords in Inuktitut stems out of necessity due to the typological differences between Inuktitut and English, however individual deviations arise from liberties taken by bilingual speakers in their speech when drawing on both Inuktitut and English grammatical and morphological systems while using an English-origin loanword. These findings are relevant to the linguistic documentation of Inuktitut and shed light on the language contact situation between the Indigenous language Inuktitut and the settler language English.
Copyright (c) 2025 Connor Mi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Improving Spelling Proficiency in Filipino through Word-Paragraph Discrimination Strategy
One common dilemma in the Filipino language is the poor spelling skills among students. This is reflected in their written outputs and even posts in social media. Good spelling of words in a language is a manifestation of linguistic familiarization and even mastering its vocabularies. This action research study explored the spelling gaps among high school students. A primary goal is to find out the spelling proficiency problem as evidence of claimed poor spelling skill and an intervention is applied. A quasi-experimental method was used in this study. Pre-test and post-test were all administered to two groups of respondents. A word-paragraph discrimination strategy (WPDS) was used as an intervention for the experimental group. The basis for the standard spelling and rules was anchored from the Orthography of Filipino released by the Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino (KWF). The results revealed that in the pre-test, both groups gained poor results which support the observed poor spelling proficiency of the students. Meanwhile, the result in the post-test revealed a big difference for both groups. The control group did not meet significant progress while the experimental group had gained excellent results which signifies great improvement. The intervention used is proven effective and can help in improving the spelling proficiency of the students in Filipino. Strategy such as WPDS promotes a metalinguistic awareness of maintaining the standard of a language, consonantly, acclimating students in the conventions of spelling and vocabularies.
Copyright (c) 2025 Alican Pandapatan, Farhana A Macarimbang, Fahima C Mangondato https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Media Sosial dan Keterhubungan Global dalam Era Digital: Naratif Fiksi Mini 16:60
Kajian ini meneliti keterhubungan global dalam masyarakat moden melalui karya Fiksi Miini 16:60 (2018) oleh Haji Morshidi Haji Marsal. Pendekatan kualitatif dengan kaedah pembacaan teks digunakan bagi menganalisis lima naratif terpilih, iaitu “Facebook,” “16:60,” “Kita Sama Saja,” “Kontrak,” dan “Sakit Jiwa.” Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis peanan media massa dalam membentuk interaksi sosial, menilai kesan teknologi digital terhadap komunikasi dan hubungan sosial, serta meneliti manifestasi keterhubungan global dalam konteks kehidupan tempatan. Dapatan menunjukkan bahawa media sosial seperti Facebook, Whatsapp dan YouTube berperanan dalam mewujudkan hubungan sosial baharu, identiti maya dan pengaruh global dalam kehidupan seharian. Naratif-naratif ini menggambarkan keterbukaan terhadap pengaruh luar, perubahan corak komunikasi dan kemunculan budaya pamer digital sebagai elemen yang mengubah cara masyarakat berfikir dan berinteraksi. Kajian ini menegaskan bahawa karya seperti Fiksi Mini 16:60 bukan sahaja mencerminkan realiti sosial, tetapi juga bertindak sebagai wadah kritis dalam memahami kesan globalisasi terhadap nilai dan budaya masyarakat dalam era digital. Abstract This study examines global connectivity in modern society through the work Fiksi Mini 16:60 (2018) by Haji Morshidi Haji Marsal. A qualitative approach using close textual reading was employed to analyze five selected narratives such as “Facebook,” “16:60,” “Kita Sama Saja,” “Kontra,” and “Sakit Jiwa.” The study aims to analyze the role of mass media in shaping social interactions, assess the impact of digital technology on communication and social relationships, and investigate the manifestation of global connectivity within the context of local life. The findings reveal that social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, and YouTube play a role in creating new social relationships, virtual identities, and global influences in daily life. These narratives illustrate openness to external influences, changes in communication patterns, and the emergence of digital display culture as elements that transform how society thinks and interacts. This study emphasizes that works like Fiksi Mini 16:60 not only reflect social realities but also serve as a critical medium for understanding the impact of globalization on values and culture in the digital era.
Copyright (c) 2025 Nurezzah Haziqah Zambahri, Ena Herni Wasli https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Improving the Ability of Mastering Indonesian Vocabulary through Unjumble Media in Writing Learning for Grade 2 Students
Vocabulary mastery is key in developing good and correct writing skills. However, based on field observations, elementary school students in Bengkel Village, Buleleng, tend to be more accustomed to using their mother tongue, namely Balinese, both in everyday life and in the learning environment. This condition hampers their ability to write Indonesian effectively. The study aims to analyze and determine the increase in the ability to master Indonesian vocabulary through Unjumble media in writing learning for grade 2 students of SDN 3 Bengkel. The research method uses the One-Group Pre-Test and Post-Test Design. The research sample was 20 grade 2 students of SDN 3 Bengkel . The feasibility of the media was carried out through teacher and student response questionnaires to the media. Data analysis using quantitative analysis N-Gain calculation and qualitative analysis. The results of the study stated that pre-test and post-test results of students with an average pre-test score of 58.54 and increased in the post-test to 89.26. The percentage of student learning completion also increased in the pre-test stage with a percentage of 25% increasing to 100% in the post-test stage. The percentage of student activity increased from 40% in the pre-test stage to 95% in the post-test stage. The increase in activity occurred after the Unjumble learning media was applied. The calculation results using the N-Gain formula showed a value of 0.74 or a High category. The results of the media validity based on the teacher response questionnaire obtained a percentage of 95% with a Very Appropriate category. The results of the questionnaire showed that the overall percentage of student questionnaire answers obtained a result of 85% or fell into the Very Appropriate and Very Practical categories.
Copyright (c) 2025 Tania Riski, Anak Agung Putu Putra, Made Sri Satyawati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Analisis Tindak Tutur Ilokusi dalam Titah KDYMM: Suatu Kajian Pragmatik
Tindak tutur (speech act) mempunyai kedudukan yang sangat penting dalam pragmatik. Tindak tutur merupakan pertuturan yang dilakukan oleh penutur melalui ujaran. Dalam ujaran, setiap kalimat bukan hanya mempunyai makna literal tetapi memainkan peranan penting dalam komunikasi kerana setiap kalimat yang diucapkan mempunyai makna yang tertentu bergantung kepada situasi dan niat penutur. Dalam mengetahui bagaimana ujaran mempunyai makna sebaliknya. Maka, kajian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis tindak tutur ilokusi dan realisasi dalam ucapan titah KDYMM Paduka Seri Baginda Sultan semasa majlis Konvokesyen Universiti Brunei Darussalam (UBD) dari tahun 2019 hingga 2023. Isu utama yang mendorong kajian ini dilakukan timbul daripada keperluan untuk memahami bagaimana tindak tutur ilokusi, direalisasikan dalam titah yang diujarkan oleh KDYMM, dan implikasi terhadap pendengar, khususnya graduan. Kajian ini menggunakan metode kualitatif dengan analisis kandungan teks titah digunakan berpandukan teori tindak tutur yang diperkenalkan oleh Searle (1969). Hasil kajian mendapati bentuk tindak tutur asertif, direktif dan ekspresif, digunakan dalam titah KDYMM. Bentuk tindak tutur ekspresif lebih banyak digunakan dalam titah KDYMM untuk menyampaikan mesej dan memberikan penekanan terhadap hal-hal berkaitan dengan teknologi, kecerdasan buatan (AI), keusahawanan, ekonomi, pembangunan dan pertumbuhan sumber tenaga manusia. Implikasi kajian ini memberikan kesan signifikan dalam memahami penggunaan Bahasa dalam konteks formal. An Analysis of Illocutionary Acts in the Royal Address of KDYMM: A Pragmatic Study Abstract Speech acts hold a very important position in pragmatic. A speech acts is referring to utterance made by the speaker through their speech. In speech acts, sentences that are utter by the speakers is not only carries a literal meaning but also hold a vital role in communication. Every sentence that are utter by the speaker contains specific meaning depending on the speaker’s intention and situations. To understand how an utterance carries a meaning, this study aims to analyse the illocutionary speech acts and their realization in the speeches of His Majesty Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah during the University Brunei Darussalam (UBD) convocation ceremonies from 2019 to 2023. The issue prompting this research is from the need to understand how illocutionary acts, the realization in His Majesty’s speeches and the implication for the audience, particularly the graduates. This study conducted a qualitative method using content analysis of the text, based on the speech theory introduces by Searle (1969). The findings reveal that assertive, directive, and ekspresif are present in the speeches. Therefore, directive is more frequently used to convey messages and in emphasizing matters related to the technology, artificial intelligence (AI), entrepreneurship, the economy, development and workforce development. Thus, the implications of this study provide a significant understanding of how language use in formal context.
Copyright (c) 2025 Dk Khairunnisa Pg Hj Ahmad, Lalu Nurul Yaqin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Function and Meaning of Japanese Greetings “Tadaima” and “Okaerinasai” on Social Media X: Sociolinguistic Study
This study explores the functions and meanings of the Japanese greetings tadaima and okaerinasai as they are used on the social media platform X. Traditionally, these greetings serve specific functions: tadaima is used when someone returns home, and Okaerinasai is used to welcome them back, typically within shared living spaces. However, as language evolves, the context and usage of these greetings have expanded beyond their original meanings, particularly in digital spaces where formal rules of language use are more fluid. The data in this study will be analyzed using qualitative methods and sociolinguistic theories that address shifts in the function and meaning of tadaima and okaerinasai when used by social media users on X. The aim of this study is to examine how these greetings are used on social media platform X, exploring the differences between their traditional and contemporary uses and how these shifts influence their function and meaning in online interactions.
Copyright (c) 2025 Ni Komang Tri Jayanti, Ketut Artawa, Ketut Widya Purnawati https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Cultural Practices and Lifestyle of the Momogun Rungus Tribe of the Bavanggazo Longhouse Community in Sabah, Malaysia: Ethnographic Notes
This study investigates the cultural practices and lifestyle of the Momogun Rungus Tribe in Sabah, Malaysia, focusing on their communal living in the Bavanggazo Longhouse. Utilizing a micro-ethnographic approach, the research documents traditional practices, agricultural activities, rituals, and the linguistic and medicinal knowledge of the Rungus people. The Bavanggazo Longhouse, a significant cultural site, offers valuable insights into the tribe's historical and contemporary life. The findings reveal the critical role of traditional ceremonies, such as the Magahau festival, and the importance of the Rungus language and medicinal practices in maintaining cultural identity. Health challenges and the impact of modernization on cultural practices were also examined. This study highlights the necessity of preserving the Rungus cultural heritage amidst modernization pressures, contributing to a deeper understanding of Malaysia's cultural diversity and offering a resource for future preservation efforts. The comprehensive documentation aims to support cultural preservation initiatives and foster appreciation of the Rungus Tribe's rich heritage
Copyright (c) 2024 Dk Aliza Razanah Ali, Lalu Nurul Yaqin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Humor dalam Buku Komik ‘Lawak Kampus’: Analisis Teori Grice
This research aims to find out the hidden meanings found in the comic book 'Lawak Kampus' by Keith. The research questions are, (1) What maxims exist in the ‘Lawak Kampus’ comic? and (2) Does the comic 'Lawak Kampus' have maximum compliance with the principle of cooperation or vice versa? The objectives of this study are (1) To identify the implied meaning behind the four-part comic 'Lawak Kampus', (2) To analyze the maxims of the principle of cooperation found in the comic 'Lawak Kampus' and (3) To classify the maxims of the principle of cooperation as categorized in Grice's theory (1975). This study uses a qualitative method which is a descriptive type. In producing this study, three methods were used, namely the library method, the data collection method and the data analysis method. The data taken is from a comic book 'Lawak Kampus Kompilasi Mantap 3' Malay version. The selection of data is random by selecting 20 data from the comic book that has humor for each story. This study only focuses on the humor in the comic book. Next, the results of the 20 data that have been selected will be analyzed one by one by explaining the implicature used in each title whether there is compliance or violation of the maximum principle of cooperation in the comic or vice versa. As a result of the study, there are four maxims of the principle of cooperation in the comic book. In addition, this study uses the theory from Grice (1975). Therefore, this study looks in terms of the hidden meanings found in the comic.
Copyright (c) 2024 Nurhasyimah Mahri, mardina mahadi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Gender Roles and Student Involvement in Malay Literature through Drama Activity
Teaching drama in Brunei presents unique challenges for educators. This study explores the need for a balanced strategy that respects cultural norms and gender roles while encouraging students’ involvement. Through a qualitative analysis of researcher and educator experiences, the study highlights the impact of student participation and engagement, with boys and girls often approaching activities differently. The study suggests that tailoring activities to diverse learning styles, creating safe spaces for open conversation and encourage teamwork and respect are crucial in helping students find their voice and develop essential life skills. This paper emphasizes the importance of cultural sensitivity, an open mind and a readiness to adapt in creating transformative drama approaches. By meeting students where they are approaching the activities with an open mind, educators can empower students to discover their strength, explore new perspectives and gain a deep understanding of themselves and the world around them. The study discusses the importance of achieving this balance to maximize the impact of drama experiences in Brunei classroom.
Copyright (c) 2024 Ena Herni Wasli https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Analisis Sentimen Rakyat Brunei Terhadap Siaran Halaman ‘Brunei Fm’ Yang Bertajuk ‘Kes Pertama #Covid-19 Di Negara Brunei Darussalam'
The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted global societies, prompting widespread discussions on social media platforms. This study examines the sentiments expressed in Facebook comments by Bruneians regarding the first COVID-19 case in Negara Brunei Darussalam. Despite COVID-19 no longer being a global concern, understanding public sentiment during such crises remains critical for example, for future public health responses. Using a manual sentiment analysis approach, 50 comments from the post’s on ‘Brunei FM’ Facebook page were analyzed to categorize them into positive, negative, and neutral sentiments. The analysis revealed that 54% of the comments were negative, expressing fear, criticism, and blame, while 26% were positive, reflecting hope, support for health measures, and sympathy. The remaining 20% were neutral, focusing on information sharing and advice. This research aims to contribute to the field of manual sentiment analysis by providing a detailed examination of public reactions during a health crisis. The findings underscore the importance of effective communication strategies, community engagement, and responsive policy-making to address public concerns and enhance resilience during future health emergencies.
Copyright (c) 2024 Nurul Fazliana Fatin Muhammad Morshiddi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Analisis Tatabahasa Visual Dalam Iklan Jenama Fesyen Pada Siaran Pempengaruh Brunei Di Media Sosial Instagram
Media has become a part of society that utilizes signs and markers on featured images. Social media users have incorporated semiotic resources such as writing, speech, use of images or videos, layout and color while communicating. This shows that communication nowadays is no longer limited to the use of words only or a conventional approach. In addition, social media can also be used to promote sales products by collaborating between brands and famous figures or social media influencers because the role of social media influencers shows a very convincing potential in helping the development of the branding of a product or service. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of providing a comprehensive overview of the visual elements in fashion brand advertisements uploaded by Bruneian influencers on Instagram. The method of the study was a descriptive qualitative and the data collection method in this study consists of literature review and documentation. The data sources are collected from 4 Bruneian influencers who posted some fashion advertisements, especially women's hijabs and dresses from several different brands. All data collected was analyzed using the Visual Grammar Design framework model from Kress and van Leeuwen (2006). The results of the study show that the advertisements uploaded by the Brunei influencers meet the criteria stated by Kress and van Leeuwen. The researcher found that the posts uploaded by Bruneian influencers are often represented using conceptual structures. In addition, the researcher found that in the interaction component, Bruneian influencers make more eye contact (demand) than offer. The social distance for the uploaded photo on every posts is also taken with a medium shot, long shot or very long shot. This social distance can ensure that the message from the advertised product can be well communicated to the audience. In fact, each post also has a similarity in terms of point of view, which is subjectivity because each picture shows the participant's involvement with the advertised product and each picture is taken from a frontal angle. Lastly, the researcher found that in terms of compositional components, the products advertised by Bruneian influencers appear to be on the left side (given) and also on the right side (new). However, more are seen to be in the middle (ideal) because this ad product consists of clothes or hijabs used by the participants.
Copyright (c) 2024 Siti Nabihah Latip, Ashrol Rahimy Damit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Critical Discourse Analysis on the Texts Dimension of the FIFA President’s Speech: Press Conference of FIFA in Qatar
This article examines the text dimension of the President Press Conference of FIFA in Qatar 2022. The objective of the article is to examine the text dimension of the FIFA president's speech at the opening of the FIFA World Cup on November 19th, 2022 by using the theory of Fairclough’s text dimension such as phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. This article used a descriptive qualitative method and critical discourse analysis approach. The data were taken from the speech of the 2022 FIFA president's speech. The result revealed that the meaning of the FIFA World Cup president’s speech covered the text analysis dimension. First, in the text analysis dimension, Infantino Gramsci’s speech fulfilled the hierarchy of grammatical structures built completely (phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics). In the phonology aspect, it is just used as a rhyme rather than alliteration and assonance. In the morphological aspect, it is used various types of inflectional word classes but did not change the meaning in assembling his speech and the aspects of syntax and semantics frequently appeared, however, the president attempted to show that his statements were grammatically precise and that he effectively conveyed the content of his address through the use of semantics. The highlights are that Infantino created patterns in the way he put his phrases together as a speech producer to satisfy the requirements of the speech hierarchy by having a high level of communication proficiency, or, from a linguistic standpoint, spoken language.
Copyright (c) 2024 Nur Sukma Almira Yasmin, Alamsyah Alamsyah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Unveiling Depths The Regional Language Research in Brunei: Preservation, Globalization, and Cultural Identity using Bibliometric Analysis
By unravelling these complicated threads, the study provides insight into the interconnections among concepts, seminal contributions, and thematic evolution within this field. Research on the impact of globalization on local dialects is experiencing a simultaneous surge. The main focus of important academic works highlights the urgent necessity to safeguard languages and the intricate dynamics of the global dominance of Brunei's linguistic heritage. This scholarly investigation offers a thorough examination of the intricate progress in regional language research within Brunei, focusing on the relationship between preservation, globalisation, and cultural identity. This study uses bibliometric analysis and VOSviewer visualisation to investigate the scholarly landscape of Brunei's linguistic domain thoroughly. Publication patterns have evolved over time, starting from basic documentation of linguistic differences to now involving interdisciplinary partnerships that bridge linguistics with sociology and education. This study employs bibliometric analysis to examine the complex relationships and patterns that influence regional language research in Brunei. After refining the keywords, the study found only 43 documents out of 996 to be relevant. It was observed that articles were the most commonly published type, with Springer and Universiti Brunei Darussalam being the top publishers for studies on regional languages in Brunei. In VOSviewer analysis, the themes of 'tradition' and 'heritage' emerged as dominant, highlighting the importance of language and culture research in preserving linguistic heritage for future generations. Keyword: bibliometric analysis, VOSview, regional language, evolution, Brunei
Copyright (c) 2024 Zulfadzlee Zulfadzlee https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0