International Journal of Population Issues
International Journal of Population Issues (IJPI) aims at expanding venues for academic publications on population issues globally, with a particular emphasis on developing countries. This open-access publication is subject to anonymous peer review and invites submissions from a diverse range of disciplines including technical demography, economics, sociology, anthropology, politics, history, and health. This journal welcomes both theoretical and applied research on population issues, covering a variety of topics such as fertility and reproductive health, marriage/ union formation and dissolution, employment, population mobility, population ageing, population projection, mortality, health, education, ethnicity/race/religion/language, welfare, as well as relationships between population dynamics and development.
Maternal Employment and Stunting in Indonesia
The global occurrence of high stunting rates and the rising participation of women in the labour force has prompted researchers to investigate whether stunting is related to mothers’ participation in the labour force. Similarly, in Indonesia, women's employment opportunities have improved, and the stunting rate has remained relatively high. The question is whether stunting is related to maternal employment. More specifically, is maternal employment related to a higher stunting rate? This paper answers this question by employing a 2021 nationwide survey, encompassing low- and high-income households, enriched with an anthropometric study to measure stunting. It uses an ordinal logistic regression analysis to examine the relationship between maternal employment and stunting. The results show that maternal employment is not related to higher stunting. Even maternal employment is related to reduced stunting for maternal employment in formal sectors. The results may imply the need to expand formal sectors while anticipating a rising female labour force participation rate. The growth of formal sectors needs to be accompanied by the implementation of nutrition scaling-up initiatives for children under the age of two, as child growth undergoes rapid development in the initial two years of life.
Copyright (c) 2023 Aprilia Ira Pratiwi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Roles of Socio-economic Environments on the Relationship between Number of Children and Maternal Employment in Indonesia
Incompatibility between child-rearing and maternal employment has been assumed to result in a negative relationship between number of children and maternal employment. The higher the degree of incompatibility, the stronger is the negative correlation. In other words, the degree of this incompatibility affects the sign and magnitude of the relationship between number of children and maternal employment. However, existing studies have not considered whether the relationship varies by the mother’s socioeconomic environment. This paper fills this gap by using three Indonesian data sets: 2015 socio-economic survey to obtain individual variables, 2014 village potential survey to have socio-economic environments at the village level, and published data to measure socio-economic environments at the district level. It uses a logistic regression with maternal employment as the dependent variable and two main independent variables: number of children and a set of socioeconomic environment variables. The impact of socio-economic environments is seen by examining the coefficients of interaction between socio-economic environments and number of children. The empirical results show that the relationship depends on the indicators used to measure the socio-economic environments Some indicators of socio-economic environments strengthen the relationship, some weaken, and some do not have any impact.
Copyright (c) 2024 Aslamia Anwar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Reciprocal Relationship among Migration, FDI, and Economic Growth
The relationship between migration and Foreign Direct Investment (hereafter called “FDI”) with respect to economic growth remains a topic of interest to researchers and policymakers. Debates have also been going on about whether migration and FDI are substitute or complement to each other. To respond to the debates, research has been carried out on partial relationships among the three variables and/ or one-directional relationships among the variables. However, the three variables may be reciprocally related to each other as a system. This paper’s first contribution is an empirical examination of the possible existence of reciprocal relationships as a system, using panel data from 150 countries from all over the world in 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015. The second contribution is an empirical examination of whether migration and FDI are substitutes or complements. A simultaneous three-equation model is utilised to test the possible reciprocal relationships and whether migration and FDI are substitutes or complement. This paper concludes the existence of reciprocal causal relationships except between FDI and economic growth, where their relationship is only one way (from FDI to economic growth). It also concludes that FDI and migration are complementary to each other with respect to economic growth.
Copyright (c) 2023 Habibulloh https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Do Migration, Trade, and FDI Reduce Poverty? Lessons Learned from The European Union
The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the process of economic integration by restricting the movement of goods, capital, and labour (migration) across borders, accompanied by an increase in poverty rates. Therefore, it is crucial to anticipate what might occur in the post-pandemic era. Will migration, trade, and foreign direct investment (FDI) be effective in alleviating poverty? This paper draws insights from the European Union (EU), the world's largest common market, to address this question. It assesses the impact of migration, trade, and FDI on poverty using data from the EU-28 countries spanning the period of 2009-2018, which was prior to the pandemic. The findings suggest that the promotion of free trade, unrestricted capital flow, and unrestricted migration may not necessarily lead to poverty reduction.
Copyright (c) 2023 Raisa Adilla https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Temporal Analysis of Air Pollution Effects on Cardiovascular Diseases and Mortality in Ahvaz, Iran
In recent decades, air pollution has emerged as a significant environmental concern in major urban centers across Iran, exerting a profound impact on public health. This article aims to investigate the temporal correlation between air pollution and the incidence of cardiovascular disease and mortality. Utilizing secondary analysis of environmental data, hospital records, and mortality registries from Ahvaz, Iran, in 2016, our study elucidates these relationships. Our findings reveal a heightened susceptibility among men to both cardiovascular disease onset and mortality compared to women, with individuals aged 55-64 exhibiting increased vulnerability to cardiovascular diseases. The results of multivariate analysis indicate that the optimal time model, explaining 60% of the variance, is observed 23 days after pollutant emission for cardiovascular disease incidence. Conversely, for cardiovascular mortality, the most effective time model, explaining 6.5 percent of the variance, aligns with elevated air pollution levels on the same day. Notably, various pollutants, including toluene, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, PM2.5, and PM10, exhibit distinct temporal patterns, significantly influencing cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, toluene, benzene, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and PM10 emerge as primary contributors to cardiovascular mortality, each demonstrating unique temporal effects. Our study further delves into the emergence of time-delayed and oscillatory patterns in the impact of air pollution on cardiovascular diseases and mortality. This study highlights the necessity of evaluating the efficacy of individual pollutants separately. Consequently, the development of effective policies and programs aimed at mitigating pollutants and their temporal repercussions on health is crucial for curtailing and managing the health complications associated with cardiovascular diseases.
Copyright (c) 2024 Habib Allah Sadeghi, Rasoul Sadeghi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Is Poverty Rate Related to Population Aging Among Indonesia’s Districts?
Many studies have been done on the impact of an aging population on economic growth, but studies on the impact of aging on poverty are still limited though a higher economic growth rate is not necessarily translated into a lower poverty rate. Yes, it is often argued that an aging population will result in rising poverty. This study fills this gap by analyzing districts in Indonesia. It examines three questions. The first is to examine whether aging is directly related to poverty. The second is to examine whether aging is indirectly related to poverty through per capita Regional Domestic Product. The third is to calculate the net relationship by summing the direct and indirect relationships. It conducts regression analyses on 2010, 2015, and 2020 data sets separately. It concludes that an aging district is not necessarily related to a higher poverty rate in the district. An observation that an aging district is associated with a higher poverty rate is only found in Java Island, with a modern economy and infrastructure as well as higher percentages of older people. In Outer Java Islands, an aging district is more likely to have a lower poverty rate.
Copyright (c) 2024 Fatkhu Ridho Fitra Esa Putra https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Immigration of Foreign Nationals in Nepal: A Study on International Migration from India to Nepal (1961-2021)
Cross-border migration is a widespread phenomenon around the world. Around 281 million international migrants are residing outside their country as of the year 2020. Most of the beneficiaries of migration are moving towards developed nations; nonetheless, when discussing international migration, neighbouring country migration issues are frequently overlooked, particularly when migration occurs from a more developing to a less developed country. This study explores the reason for the migration and integration of Indian immigrants in Nepal. The current study uses secondary data from the Nepal population and housing census (NPHC). Descriptive statistics on the pattern and composition of Indian immigrants present in Nepal have been employed in this study based on secondary data. Seasonal short-term immigration increased by 0.9 percent in the 2011-2021 decade. In contrast, from the 2011 to the 2021 census, long-term or permanent immigration of foreign citizens (including Indians) has drastically declined (8.9%). The rate of Indian immigration has dramatically increased in the census decades of 1991 (7.9%), 2001 (2.5%), and 2021 (7.3%). The majority of Indian immigrants, both men and women, inhabit Kathmandu. Most of the districts in Nepal's southern Terai area that border India have a higher prevalence of female Indian immigrants, suggesting collaboration between India and Nepal on policy campaigns.
Copyright (c) 2024 Tushar Dakua, Kailash Chandra Das, Ranjan Karmankar https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Population Age Structure and Sex Composition in Bangladesh, China and India: A Comparative Study
Understanding past, present, and future population dynamics is essential for development planning for any country, particularly for the most populous nations like Bangladesh, China, and India, where almost 38 percent of the world population lives, according to World Population Prospects 2022 of the United Nations. Due to the non-availability of comparative analysis in age structure and sex composition in these countries, this study aims to examine the following questions: (i) What has been the course of age and sex composition trends, and why? and (ii) to what extent have the age structure transition and sex composition been similar or dissimilar? This study utilizes time-series data from national-level population censuses, surveys, population projections, and estimates produced by the United Nations Population Division. Bangladesh and India are currently experiencing the third phase of demographic transition due to a decline in birth and death rates at an almost similar pace where a majority of the people are aged 15-64 years (working-age population), which will be diminishing between 2030 to 2040 with the increase of older persons. On the other hand, China has completed the fourth stage of the demographic transition and is going through a further decline in population growth rate and an increasing aging trend. The sex ratio at birth and the general sex ratio are both higher in India and China than in Bangladesh. A strong presence of Gender-Biased Sex Selection (GBSS) has been found in Bangladesh, India and China. The child dependency ratios are currently low and almost similar in Bangladesh and India. In China, old-age dependency is already increasing, and both Bangladesh and India will eventually observe an increase in the old-age dependency ratio by 2040, according to the projection. For Bangladesh and India to achieve the maximum benefits of the first demographic dividend and SDG 8, 5, and 3- the countries need short- and long-term policy actions on education, health, economy, and good governance, considering the age structure and sex composition. For China, the challenges will be to sustain future economic growth with a declining working-age population and ensure healthy aging to achieve a second demographic dividend.
Copyright (c) 2024 Mohammad Mainul Islam, Harihar Sahoo, Muhammad Saifullah Akib Akib, Rahul Kumar Sanjowal https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Disability in Brunei Darussalam: a Brief Exploration of Inclusivity and Challenges
Disability often goes unnoticed globally, leading to inadequate support and resources for disabled individuals, affecting their societal participation and access to services. Brunei, despite being Southeast Asia's smallest nation, has addressed disability issues through its universal disability welfare program since 1955. The Old Age and Disability Pension Act has evolved, most recently in 2021, broadening eligibility and ensuring income security. However, only Brunei citizens or stateless permanent residents are eligible, excluding some foreign citizens with permanent residency. The monthly disability allowance is BND250, with additional amounts for care providers and those over 60. Despite improvements, challenges remain in public space accessibility, education, and employment for disabled individuals. Efforts for inclusivity are ongoing, with the first inclusion of disability questions in the 2021 Census and initiatives to improve public attitudes and opportunities for people with disabilities.
Copyright (c) 2024 Evi Nurvidya Arifin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Investigating Usage of Menstrual Hygiene Methods among Young Tribal Women in India: A Regional Analysis
The portrayal of menstrual blood varies widely, being depicted as sacred, a divine gift, or even a punishment for sin among tribal societies. Meanwhile, maintaining menstrual hygiene is of utmost importance. Very few studies have explored this issue. To address this gap, the present study examines the menstrual hygiene methods region-wise among tribal women aged 15-24 using the National Family Health Survey. The bivariate analysis revealed that the groups of indigenous people who fall outside the predominant Indian social hierarchy are most deprived among all the caste/tribe groups in the usage of hygienic methods. About three-fifths of the young tribal women still use clothes. The prevalence of usage of unhygienic methods among tribal women is highest in Madhya Pradesh (59%), followed by Jammu & Kashmir, Gujarat, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh. Half of the young tribal women from the central region still use unhygienic methods, followed by those from the western, eastern, and northern regions. However, there is an improvement in the usage of menstrual hygiene methods among tribal women. There is a wide cross-sectional variation in educational level, religion, mass media exposure, wealth index, and the type of toilet facility across the regions of India, as revealed by multivariate analysis. The government should mitigate the regional disparity.
Copyright (c) 2024 Anubhav Verma, Harihar Sahoo https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
The Rise of Liberal Attitudes Toward Abortion in Iran
In Iran, abortion is illegal and only permitted under certain circumstances. This article aims to examine changes in attitudes toward abortion and their correlates over the past two decades, using data from the 2000, 2005, and 2020 Iran World Values Survey (WVS). The results show that over the past two decades, approval of abortion has increased, with recent Iranian birth cohorts having a more positive attitude toward abortion compared to older generations. Multivariate results indicate that people with lower religiosity and more positive attitudes toward gender equality and modern family values hold more favorable views on abortion. Given the growth of liberal attitudes toward abortion, a rising trend in its incidence in Iran is expected. Therefore, the government must consider revising the legality of abortion to avert health risks for women seeking the procedure.
Copyright (c) 2024 Hatam Hosseini, Milad Bagi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Impact of Migration Status on Probability of Commuting among Workers in Indonesia
The theory of mobility transition suggests that in the early stages of development, people tend to move shorter distances. As development advances, people are able to make longer journeys, leading to migration or long-term population mobility. However, further development progress allows people to engage in more short-term population mobility, enjoying the benefits of destination areas without fully detaching from their original societies. While some macro-level studies have shown that short-term population mobility might replace migration, there are limited micro-level studies examining how migration status influences short-term population mobility. This paper presents a new empirical finding based on Indonesia's 2019 National Labour Survey data, exploring whether workers' migration status impacts their likelihood of commuting as a form of population mobility. The analysis uses probit analysis with instrumental variables and concludes that workers with migrant status are more likely to commute.
Copyright (c) 2024 Agustin Darmayanti https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Factors associated with choice of transportation mode among students commuting to school in Jabodetabek, Indonesia
Over the past decade (2010–2020), the journeys made by students in the Jakarta Metropolitan Area to and from school have predominantly relied on private transportation. To address the persistent issue of traffic congestion, this study focuses on identifying the characteristics of student commuters and exploring strategies to shift their transportation preferences from private transportation to sustainable mass public transit options. A binary logistic regression analysis was conducted to examine the influence of individual-level variables on students' mode of transportation choices. The findings reveal that 67% of student commuters opted for private transportation, while 33% used public transportation. Students' preference for public transit was significantly associated with factors such as gender, education level, travel distance, commute duration, and cost. To inform policy formulation, the study highlights the importance of implementing push-and-pull strategies. These include discouraging the use of private transportation and promoting public transportation or school buses. Such programs aim to encourage a shift towards more sustainable and efficient modes of mobility among students.
Copyright (c) 2025 Budi Aji Purwoko https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Gender Equity within Fertility Change: Is India an Exception?
Fertility change is often posited to exhibit a positive correlation with gender equality. As the fertility rate decreases, the burden of frequent childbearing diminishes, thereby facilitating the greater involvement of women in economic activities. Scholars argue that economic development—encompassing factors such as fertility transitions, economic growth, and broader modernization processes—naturally promotes gender equality without the need for additional interventions (Dollar and Gatti, 1999). However, this argument, predominantly tested in the context of highly developed countries, has been insufficiently explored in developing nations like India. One perspective suggests that the enhanced status of women drives the fertility transition, thereby rendering increased gender equality an inevitable consequence of fertility change (Anderson and Kohler, 2015). In contrast, another viewpoint asserts that fertility transitions induced by family planning interventions do not directly foster gender equality, necessitating explicit policy measures to achieve true equality (Malhotra, 2012). This paper seeks to address this debate by examining the fertility patterns observed in India, which do not conform to traditional fertility change models. Such an analysis can offer valuable insights into the relationship between fertility and gender equality, particularly in low-income countries undergoing fertility transitions driven by family planning initiatives.
Copyright (c) 2024 K.S James, Ava M. Attia https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Exploring the Link Between Poverty and Visual Disability: Empirical Insights from Indonesia Using IFLS Data
Poverty and visual disability are forms of capability deprivation (Sen, 2009). Previous studies have found inconsistent results regarding the relationship between poverty and visual disability. This study examines the bidirectional relationship between poverty and visual disability in Indonesia. It uses data from the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS) Wave 4 (2007) and Wave 5 (2014). The findings of this study differ from those of previous research. First, individuals identified as having a visual disability in 2007 were found to have a lower risk of falling into poverty compared to those without a visual disability. Second, individuals who were classified as poor in 2007 had a lower risk of experiencing visual disability in 2014 compared to those who were not classified as poor in 2007. These findings suggest that individuals with visual disabilities in Indonesia are confident and can still engage in various activities, including working to earn an income. Moreover, individuals with visual impairments can quickly adapt to technology to support their daily activities.
Copyright (c) 2025 Fera Febriana Sritutur, Abdur Rahman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Education and Fertility Outcomes among Women in Morogoro Region: Does Schooling Still Matter?
The stagnation of the fertility decline in Tanzania poses new doubts on the demographic leverage of education. Based on a survey of 381 women conducted in Morogoro Region in 2025, the paper re-examines the schooling and fertility relationship through cross-tabulations and multivariate regression. Primary educated women had a mean parity of 4.8 births that declined to 4.3 among secondary leavers and increased to 4.6 among tertiary graduates indicating cohort effects. Controlling for age and occupation, secondary schooling was correlated with 0.45 fewer children a trivial, non-significant tertiary coefficient (p = 0.077). The difference in the number of children born by formal employees and the similar farmers was -0.59, which was a significant reinforcement of the concept of decent work. Chi-square tests proved that there was significant variation in fertility based on occupation (p = 0.022) but a marginal variation based on education (p = 0.079). The scenario modelling reveals that the universal lower-secondary completion could reduce the regional TFR by 0.4 births. Post-primary retention, youth-friendly contraception and promotion of female employment should be intertwined through policy to accelerate fertility decline.
Copyright (c) 2025 Jaha Mulema https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Association Between Health and Working Among Older Adults in Indonesia
This study examines the association between health status and labor supply among older adults in Indonesia. It uses data from the March 2023 National Socio-Economic Survey (Susenas), conducted by Statistics Indonesia (BPS), with an analytical sample aged 40 and above, to allows comparisons between older adults and pre-older adults groups. To estimate the probability of working, it uses a binary logistic regression. The analysis controls for various socioeconomic and regional characteristics. The findings show that the probability of working declines with age. However, being in good health significantly increases the likelihood of working among older adults. A similar pattern is observed among the pre-older adults, suggesting that the positive association between health and labor supply is not exclusive to the elderly. Assuming lower wages at older ages, the results imply that the substitution effect dominates among those aged 60–69, while the income effect is more prominent among individuals aged 70 and above. This indicates that continued working at very old ages is often driven by financial necessity rather than choice. These findings highlight the importance of expanding older adults-friendly employment opportunities and promoting better health in later life to support a more productive and dignified aging workforce.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sohidin Sohidin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Inequality of Access to Social Welfare Programs for Older People in Indonesia
Little research attention has been given to investigating inequalities in access to social rights for older women and men in rural Indonesia. This paper aims to analyse the extent of access of older adults to the elements of the social welfare program, the determinants of exclusion from these programs and how existing programs can be improved. Data is drawn from the Ageing in Rural Indonesian Study (ARIS). The Indonesian government has made efforts to fulfil the social rights of older adults. However, logistic regression analysis indicates significant variation and inequalities in access to government services among rural older adults depending on sex, region and social class. The extent of access is influenced by the state’s approach and certain cultural assumptions in the local communities. The state influence works through the way programs are organized and provided. This paper also highlights the challenges that affect the quality of services for older adults, including very limited coverage, underfunding, poor targeting, decentralization and lack of integration, and poorly prepared health care workers.
Copyright (c) 2025 Muh Ulil Absor https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Gender Disparities and Population Aging in Developing Asia: A Life Course and Policy Perspective
This commentary reflects on the webinar “Gender Disparities and Population Aging in Developing Asia” held on 8 May 2025, which brought together experts from Thailand, Indonesia, Iran, and Sri Lanka. Using a life course framework, the discussions highlighted the cumulative disadvantages older women face, including economic insecurity, limited pension access, and unpaid caregiving responsibilities. This note synthesizes key insights from the presentations, situates them within the broader demographic literature, and offers regional policy reflections on advancing gender equity in later life.
Copyright (c) 2025 Siow Li Lai https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Harnessing Family Planning to Accelerate Fertility Transition and Realize Pakistan’s Demographic Dividend
Pakistan has been slow to reap the benefits of its demographic dividend, despite the onset of fertility decline in the 1990s. However, the opportunity remains significant as total fertility rates have largely stagnated over the past 10 to 15 years, limiting the pace of demographic and economic transformation. This study explores the crucial role of family planning in accelerating fertility transition, enhancing female labor force participation, and unlocking Pakistan’s demographic dividend for sustainable economic growth. The analysis draws on nationally representative data from the Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey (PDHS 2017-18), Population Census (2017), Labor Force Surveys, and reports from international and national agencies. Using these diverse data sources alongside economic projections and relevant literature, the study identifies persistent challenges, including high unmet need for contraception and low contraceptive prevalence. The findings underscore that expanding family planning access, investing in human capital, and promoting women’s empowerment are essential to overcome stagnation, reduce dependency ratios, and achieve Pakistan’s demographic and economic potential. Coordinated policy action is critical for improving health outcomes and fostering long-term sustainable development.
Copyright (c) 2025 Sabahat Hussain https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
Population Dynamics and Demographic Change in Bangladesh: What are the Key Messages?
Bangladesh is the 8th largest and one of the most densely populated territories, with 173 million in 2023 (The 2022 Revision of World Population Prospects) and a population growth rate of 1.23% (Population & Housing Census 2022). Currently, the country shares 2.2% of the global population, which is a big number, a big challenge, and a big opportunity. Despite such scenarios, the country is graduating from the LDCs in 2026. Now, the questions raised are- 'How far have the population dynamics of Bangladesh come, and where are such dynamics headed' toward demographic change and emerging population issues?
Copyright (c) 2023 Mohammad Mainul Islam https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0