Reflective and Impulsive Cognitive Tempo and Mathematics Achievement in a Frontier, Outermost, and Disadvantaged Junior High School in Indonesia
Downloads
How to Cite
Conceptual tempo reflects individual differences in the balance between response speed and accuracy and may be particularly relevant to mathematics learning, where careful reasoning and verification are required. This study aimed to describe the distribution of conceptual-tempo profiles, compare mathematics achievement between Reflective and Impulsive students, and examine the statistical association between these two cognitive-style groups and mathematics achievement in a 3T (frontier, outermost, and disadvantaged) junior high school in Indonesia. A quantitative correlational design was employed. From a population of 210 students in Grades VII-IX, 138 students were selected through proportionate stratified random sampling followed by simple random sampling. Conceptual tempo was assessed using the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFFT), while mathematics achievement was measured using a researcher-developed 30-item test. MFFT classification identified 51 Reflective students (36.96%), 19 Impulsive students (13.77%), 68 Slow-Inaccurate students (49.27%), and no Fast-Accurate students. Inferential analysis focused on the 70 Reflective and Impulsive students. Reflective students achieved higher mathematics scores (M = 61.12, SD = 10.84) than Impulsive students (M = 34.88, SD = 9.18). Dummy-coded regression showed a statistically significant association between cognitive-style membership and mathematics achievement, F(1, 68) = 87.70, p < .001, R² = .563, with an estimated group difference of 26.24 points (B = 26.238). These findings extend evidence on Reflective-Impulsive differences to an underrepresented 3T educational context while also revealing substantial conceptual-tempo heterogeneity within the broader student sample.
Aini, N., Juniati, D., & Siswono, T. Y. E. (2020). Exploring the combinatorial reasoning of high school students with reflective and impulsive cognitive style in solving problems. Journal for the Education of Gifted Young Scientists, 8(3), 1113-1124. https://doi.org/10.17478/JEGYS.768023
Allen, J., McNeal, R., & Waterman, A. (2021). Student cognitive characteristics and achievement outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 1087-1112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09564-1
Allen, K., Higgins, S., & Adams, J. (2021). Cognitive processing styles and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychology Review, 33, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09545-2
Barrouillet, P., & Gaillard, V. (2021). Cognitive efficiency and working-memory load: Implications for speed-accuracy trade-offs. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 47(1), 188-204. https://doi.org/10.1037/xlm0000930
Cabrera, L., Bae, C. L., & DeBusk-Lane, M. (2023). A mixed methods study of middle students' science motivation and engagement profiles. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, 102281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102281
Cairns, R. B., & Cammock, T. (1978). Development of a more reliable version of the Matching Familiar Figures Test. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 48(1), 62-71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1978.tb03003.x
Çelik, H. C., & Arslan, İ. (2022). Prediction of mathematics achievement: The role of mathematical metacognition and problem-posing self-efficacy. Journal of Uludag University Faculty of Education, 35(2), 385-406. https://doi.org/10.19171/uefad.1059329
Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2023). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (6th ed.). SAGE.
Dewi, N., & Nugraheni, E. A. (2023). Kemampuan numerasi siswa bergaya kognitif reflektif dan impulsif dalam memecahkan masalah SPLDV. Edumatica: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika, 13(2), 163-171. https://doi.org/10.22437/edumatica.v13i02.25998
Etikan, I., & Bala, K. (2020). Sampling and sampling methods. Biometrics & Biostatistics International Journal, 9(3), 135-139. https://doi.org/10.15406/bbij.2020.09.00308
Field, A. (2020). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (5th ed.). SAGE. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781529714922
Finell, J., Sammallahti, E., Korhonen, J., Eklöf, H., & Jonsson, B. (2022). Working memory and its mediating role on the relationship of math anxiety and math performance: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 798090. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.798090
Fitzpatrick, J. L., Parr, G. D., & Butler, L. G. (1977). Fast-accurate and slow-inaccurate conceptual tempos: Are they distinct groups? Perceptual and Motor Skills, 45(2), 643-647. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1977.45.2.643
Glomb, K., Piotrowski, P., Gulla, B., Romanowska, I., & Mastek, M. (2024). "Slow down, one detail at the time!" The influence of reflective-impulsive cognitive style on the recollection of criminal events. Psychological Research, 89(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00426-024-02043-7
Gronchi, G., Gavazzi, G., Viggiano, M. P., & Giovannelli, F. (2024). Dual-process theory of thought and inhibitory control: An ALE meta-analysis. Brain Sciences, 14(1), 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14010101
Guenther, J., Fuqua, M., Ledger, S., Davie, S., Cuervo, H., Lasselle, L., & Downes, N. (2023). The Perennials and Trends of Rural Education: Discourses that Shape Research and Practice. Australian and International Journal of Rural Education, 33(3), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.47381/aijre.v33i3.701
Hasbullah, S. U. S. (2020). The differences of cognitive style fields-independent and dependent on students' mathematical problem solving abilities. Aksioma Jurnal Program Studi Pendidikan Matematika, 9(2), 387-394. https://doi.org/10.24127/ajpm.v9i2.2778
Hitt, S. B., Trivitt, J. R., & Cheng, A. (2020). When it comes to rural education, what do we know? Educational Researcher, 49(9), 639-649.
Ho, S., & Kozhevnikov, M. (2023). Cognitive style and creativity: The role of education in shaping cognitive style profiles and creativity of adolescents. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(4), 978-996. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12615
Kagan, J. (1965). Reflection-impulsivity and reading ability in primary school children. Child Development, 36(3), 609-628. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126908
Kagan, J. (1966). Reflection-impulsivity: The generality and dynamics of conceptual tempo. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 71(1), 17-24. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0022886
Käosaar, A., Szabó, K., Kandah, A., & Chang, W.-C. (2023). The importance of reflective practices for decision makers: A possible part of the solution for helping the field. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 16(1), 108-112. https://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2022.107
Lovett, B. J., Harrison, A. G., & Armstrong, I. T. (2022). Processing speed and timed academic skills in children with learning problems. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 11(3), 320-327. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2020.1824119
Lovett, B. J., Nelson, J. M., & Lindstrom, J. H. (2020). Speed-accuracy trade-offs and conceptual tempo in academic tasks. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 38(2), 143-156. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282919879992
Mardiyati, I. (2018). Pengaruh gaya kognitif konseptual tempo dulu. Jurnal Pendidikan dan Ilmu Pengetahuan, 18(1), 74-84. https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/JPI/article/view/8562/8626
Maulana, D., & Siregar, H. (2024). Reliability of the Matching Familiar Figures Test in assessing conceptual tempo among secondary students. Jurnal Pendidikan dan Pembelajaran Matematika, 11(1), 42-53.
Messer, S. B. (1970). The development of reflection-impulsivity and cognitive style. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 9(1), 48-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0965(70)90064-1
Mohamad, S. K., & Tasir, Z. (2023). Exploring how feedback through questioning may influence reflective thinking skills based on association rules mining technique. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 47, 101231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2023.101231
O. A., A., & K., I. (2025). Assessing item difficulty, discrimination, guessing, and carelessness parameters of the mathematics achievement test for secondary school students in Edo State, Nigeria. British Journal of Education, Learning and Development Psychology, 8(2), 75-85. https://doi.org/10.52589/bjeldp-4skvbgua
OECD. (2020). Cognitive processes and mathematics performance. Educational Research and Evaluation, 26(3), 123-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2020.1828619
Palengka, I., Hartono, Y., & Zulkardi. (2022). Mathematical achievement and cognitive characteristics of junior high school students. Journal on Mathematics Education, 12(2), 243-258. https://doi.org/10.22342/jme.13.2.15916.243-258
Putra, Z. H., & Fitriani, H. (2022). Students' cognitive characteristics and mathematics achievement in secondary schools. Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2022.100936
Rahman, A., Yusof, Y., & Osman, S. (2021). Cognitive factors influencing mathematics achievement in rural schools. Educational Studies, 47(6), 742-759. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1749837
Schürmann V, Bodemer D and Marquardt N (2025) Exploring the use of regular reflections in student collaboration: a case study in higher education. Frontier in Education. 10, 1526487. doi: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1526487
Susiloningsih, W., Prastyo, D., & Fanny, A. M. (2025). The impact of impulsive and reflective cognitive styles on the problem-solving skills of pre-service elementary teacher students. Tadris: Jurnal Keguruan dan Ilmu Tarbiyah, 10(2), 825-834. https://doi.org/10.24042/tadris.v10i1.28919
Taherdoost, H. (2020). Sampling methods in research methodology: How to choose a sampling technique for research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management, 9(3), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205035
Tikhomirova, T. N., Malykh, S. B., & Kovas, Y. (2022). Cognitive styles and academic achievement: Evidence from large-scale studies. Learning and Individual Differences, 102, 102263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102263
Tikhomirova, T. N., Malykh, S. B., & Malykh, S. S. (2023). Cognitive styles and academic performance: Evidence from secondary school students. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1182459. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1182459
Viator, R. E., Wu, Y.-J., & Viator, A. S. (2022). Testing the validity and reliability of the Matching Familiar Figures Test-2021: An updated behavioral measure of reflection-impulsivity. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 977808. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.977808
Widodo, A., & Hartati, R. (2024). Differentiated mathematics instruction based on cognitive style to improve students' conceptual understanding. Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika dan Sains, 9(1), 27-38.
Widyastuti, I. A., Purwosetiyono, F. D., & Zuhri, M. S. (2024). Analisis Pemahaman Konsep Matematika Siswa dalam Menyelesaikan Soal Word Problem Tipe Hots Ditinjau dari Gaya Kognitif. Journal on Education, 7(1), 839-851. https://doi.org/10.31004/joe.v7i1.5979
Wong, T. T.-Y. (2023). Cognitive predictors of children's arithmetic principle understanding. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 227, 105579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105579
Zelniker, T., & Jeffrey, W. E. (1976). Reflective and impulsive children: Strategies of information processing. Developmental Psychology, 12(6), 544-548. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.12.6.544
Copyright (c) 2026 Etriana Meirista, Nur Rohmah Yulia Ningrum, Nurhayati Nurhayati
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengkajian Ilmu Pendidikan: e-Saintika agree to the following terms:
- For all articles published in Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengkajian Ilmu Pendidikan: e-Saintika, copyright is retained by the authors. Authors give permission to the publisher to announce the work with conditions. When the manuscript is accepted for publication, the authors agrees to implement a non-exclusive transfer of publishing rights to the journals.
- Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
- Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work (See The Effect of Open Access).
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
